THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

ELI  SOBEL 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


FOB 


SCHOOLS  AND   COLLEGES 


BY 

ALBERT  BARENESS,  PH.  D.,  LL.  D., 

PROFESSOR  IN  SHOWN  UNIVERSITY. 


t 

REVISED  STANDARD  EDITION. 


NEW  YORK  .:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO: 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


COPYRIGHT,  1864,  l8J<i   W8L. 
Bt  1).  APPhETON  AND  COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT,  1892, 
BY  ALBERT  HAKKNESS. 

HAKK  LAT.  GRAM 

\V.  P.    1 6 


SRLfi 
URL 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    HE  VIS  ED    EDITION. 


THE  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  revealed  many  im- 
portant facts  in  the  development  of  language.  During 
this  period  philological  research  has  thrown  new  light 
upon  Latin  forms  and  inflections,  upon  the  laws  of  pho- 
netic change,  upon  the  use  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses, 
and  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  numerous  construc- 
tions. The  student  of  Latin  grammar  is  now  entitled  to 
the  full  benefit  of  the  important  practical  results  which 
these  labors  in  the  field  of  linguistic  study  have  brought 
within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  In  securing  this 
advantage,  however,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  divert  the 
attention  of  the  learner  from  the  one  object  before  him 
— the  attainment  of  a  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language. 

The  volume  now  offered  to  the  public  has  been  pre- 
pared in  view  of  these  facts.  It  is  the  result  of  a  thor- 
ough and  complete  revision  of  the  author's  Latin  Gr&m- 
mar  published  in  1864.  To  a  large  extent,  indeed,  it  is 
a  new  and  independent  work ;  yet  the  paradigms,  rules 
of  construction,  and  in  general  all  parts  intended  for 
recitation,  have  been  only  slightly  changed.  The  aim  of 
the  work  in  its  present  form  is  threefold. 

1.  It  is  designed  to  present  a  clear,  simple,  and  con- 
venient outline  of  Latin  grammar  for  the  beginner.  It 


Jy  PREFACE. 

accordingly  contains,  in  large  type,  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  leading  facts  and  laws  of  the  language,  ex- 
hibiting not  only  grammatical  forms  and  constructions, 
but  also  those  vital  principles  which  underlie,  control, 
and  explain  them.  The  laws  of  construction  are  put  in 
the  form  of  definite  rules,  and  illustrated  by  carefully 
selected  examples.  To  secure  convenience  of  reference, 
and  to  give  completeness  and  vividness  to  the  general 
outline,  these  rules,  after  having  been  separately  dis- 
cussed, are  collected  in  a  body  at  the  close  of  the  Syntax. 
Topics  which  require  the  fullest  illustration  are  first  pre- 
sented in  their  completeness  in  general  outline,  before 
the  separate  points  are  explained  in  detail.  Thus  a  single 
page  often  foreshadows  the  leading  features  of  an  ex- 
tended discussion,  imparting,  it  is  believed,  a  completeness 
and  vividness  to  the  impression  of  the  learner  impossible 
under  any  other  treatment. 

2.  It  is  intended  to  be  an  adequate  and  trustworthy 
grammar  for  the  advanced  student.    By  brevity  and  con- 
ciseness of  phraseology,  and  by  compactness  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  forms  and  topics,  an  ample  collection  of 
the  most  important  grammatical  facts,  intended  for  refer- 
ence, has  been  compressed  within  the  limits  of  a  con- 
venient manual.     Care  has  been   taken  to  explain  and 
illustrate,  with  the  requisite  fullness,  all  difficult  and  in- 
tricate subjects.    The  Subjunctive  Mood  and  the  Indirect 
Discourse  have  received  special  attention. 

3.  In  a  series  of  foot-notes  it  aims  to  bring  within  the 
reach  of  the  student  some  of  the  more  important  results 
of  recent  linguistic  research.      Brief  explanations    are 
given  of  the  working  of  phonetic  laws,  of  the  nature  of 
inflection,  of  the  origin  of  special  idioms,  and  of  various 
facts  in  the  growth  of  language.     But  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  part  of  the  work  consists  in  the  abundant 


PREFACE.  V 

references  which  are  made  to  some  of  the  latest  aud  best 
authorities  upon  the  numerous  linguistic  questions  natur- 
ally suggested  by  the  study  of  Latin  grammar.1 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  natural  quantity  of  vowels  before  two 
consonants  or  a  double  consonant.2 

With  this  brief  statement  of  its  design  and  plan,  this 
volume  is  now  respectfully  committed  to  the  hands  of 
classical  teachers. 

In  conclusion  the  author  is  happy  to  express  his 
grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  numerous  friends  who 
have  favored  him  with  valuable  suggestions. 

1  See  page  xv.    It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  authori- 
ties here  cited  is  by  no  means  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  qualification  for  the 
work  of  classical  instruction.    The  references  are  intended  especially  for  those  who 
adopt  the  historical  method  in  the  study  of  language. 

2  See  page  4,  foot-note  4 ;  also  page  9,  note  3. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  PROVIDENCE,  R.  L, 
July,  1881. 


CONTENTS 


PART     Fl  RST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.  >JMrt 

Alphabet 1 

Roman  Method  of  Pronunciation 3 

English  Method 5 

Continental  Method 8 

Quantity 8 

Accentuation 9 

Phonetic  Changes 10 

L  Changes  in  Vowels .         .  11 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants 16 


PA  RT    SECON  D. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

NOUNS. 

Gender 21 

Person,  Number,  and  Case 22 

Declension 23 

First  Declension  ...........  24 

Greek  Nouns 26 

Second  Declension 26 

Greek  Nouns 29 

Third  Declension 30 

Class  I. — Consonant-Stems 30 

Stems  in  a  Labial 30 

Stems  in  a  Dental 31 

Stems  in  a  Guttural 32 

Stems  in  a  Liquid  or  a  Nasal 33 

Stems  in  S 34 

Class  II. — I-Stems 36 

Special  Paradigms        .........  39 

Greek  Nouns 40 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension          .         .         .         .         .         .41 

Gender 46 

Fourth  Declension       .                                                               .                  .  48 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

MM 

Fifth  Declension 80 

General  Table  of  Gender 61 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns 62 

Irregular  Nouns 63 

I.  Indeclinable .  63 

II.  Defective 68 

III.  Heteroclites 66 

IV.  Heterogeneous 56 

CHAPTER    II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Deciena^ons         .......  57 

Third  Declension       ....                         ....  59 

Irregular  Adjectives      ...                                  ...  62 

Comparison 63 

I.  Terminational  Comparison 68 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison 66 

Numerals 66 

CHAPTER    III. 

PRONOUNS. 

I.  Personal  Pronouns 70 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns 71 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns 72 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns 74 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns      .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .75 

VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns .  76 

Table  of  Correlatives 77 

CHAPTER    IV. 

VERBS. 

Voices,  Moods ,  •  78 

Tenses       .............  80 

Numbers,  Persons                                   ,..»..  81 
Infinitive,  Gerund,  Supine                                   ..        ,        .        .        .81 

Participle 82 

Conjugation ....  82 

Paradigms  of  Verbs       .                                    84 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations            102 

Verbs  in  15:  Conjugation  ifi 106 

Verbal  Inflections              .        .        . 108 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  110 

Deponent  Verbs .         ,         .         .  1 14 

Periphrastic  Conjugation       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  114 

Peculiarities  in  Conjugation 115 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings 117 

I.  Tense-signs 117 

II.  Mood-signs 117 

III.  Personal  Endings         .  .         .         .         ,         ,         .118 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PASS 

Formation  of  Stems 119 

I.  Present  Stem 119 

II.  Perfect  Stems 121 

III.  Supine  Stem 122 

Classification  of  Verbs 122 

First  Conjugation 122 

Second  Conjugation 124 

Third  Conjugation 127 

Fourth  Conjugation 134 

Irregular  Verbs 135 

Defective .  141 

Impersonal 143 

CHAPTER    V. 

PARTICLES. 

idverbs 144 

Table  of  Correlatives 147 

Comparison 149 

Prepositions 149 

Conjunctions 160 

Interjections 162 

CHAPTER   VI. 
FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 

I.  Roots,  Stems,  Suffixes 162 

Primary  Suffixes 166 

II.  Derivation  of  Words 168 

Derivative  Nouns 158 

Derivative  Adjectives 165 

Derivative  Verbs 169 

III.  Composition  of  Words 172 

Compound  Nouns 173 

Compound  Adjectives 174 

Compound  Verbs .  176 


PART     THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER  I. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

I.  Classification  of  Sentences 179 

II.  Elements  of  Sentences         .        ,        .        ,        -        .        .        .182 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 

SYNTAX   OF   NOUNS. 

PAGE 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns 184 

Predicate  Nouns 184 

Appositives 185 

II.  General  View  of  Cases 186 

III.  Nominative,  Vocative 187 

I.  Nominative 187 

II.  Vocative 188 

IV.  Accusative 189 

I.  Direct  Object 189 

Two  Accusatives 191 

II.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense  ....  193 

Accusative  of  Specification 193 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space     .  .        .  194 

Accusative  of  Limit 195 

III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations 196 

V.  Dative 196 

Dative  with  Verbs — Indirect  Object        .        .         .  197 

Dative  with  Special  Verbs 199 

Dative  with  Compounds      .        .        .        .        .  201 

Dative  of  Possessor 202 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent  .  ...  202 

Ethical  Dative .203 

Two  Datives 204 

Dative  with  Adjectives 204 

Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs     ....  205 

VI.  Genitive 206 

Genitive  with  Nouns 206 

Genitive  with  Adjectives    .        .        .        .        .        .210 

Predicate  Genitive 212 

Genitive  with  Special  Verbs 213 

Accusative  and  Genitive 215 

VII.  Ablative 217 

I.   Ablative  Proper 218 

Ablative  of  Place  from  which 218 

Ablative  of  Separation,  Source,  Cause          .         .  218 

Ablative  with  Comparatives 222 

II.  Instrumental  Ablative  .         .         .         .         .         .  223 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 223 

Ablative  of  Means 224 

Ablative  in  Special  Constructions    ....  225 

Ablative  of  Price 226 

Ablative  of  Difference 226 

Ablative  of  Specification 227 

III.   Locative  Ablative 227 

Ablative  of  Place 227 

Ablative  of  Time 229 

Ablative  Absolute 231 

VIII.   Cases  with  Prepositions 232 


CONTENTS.  xi 
CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX   OP   ADJECTIVES.  PAOE 

Agreement  of  Adjectives .        .  ^  239 

Use  of  Adjectives 241 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF   PRONOUNS. 

Agreement  of  Pronouns 244 

Use  of  Pronouns 246 

Personal,  Possessive .  246 

Reflexive .247 

Demonstrative 248 

Relative 251 

Interrogative 252 

Indefinite 252 

CHAPTER     V. 

SYNTAX   OF   VERBS. 

I.  Agreement  of  Verbs — Use  of  Voices 254 

1 1.   Indicative  and  its  Tenses       .         .         .                 .        .        .  257 

Tenses  of  Indicative 257 

Use  of  Indicative        .         .         . 262 

III.  General  View  of  the  Subjunctive  and  its  Tenses          .        .  264 

IV.  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses 265 

Subjunctive  of  Desire 265 

Potential  Subjunctive 266 

V.  Imperative  and  its  Tenses       .......  268 

VI.  Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses 269 

I.  Tenses  of  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses       .         .  269 

II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose    .•  273 

III.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Result 276 

IV.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences       ....  280 
V.   Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses 287 

VI.   Moods  in  Causal  Clauses 289 

VII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses 291 

VIII.   Indirect  Discourse 296 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse   .        .         .  296 

Persons  and  Pronouns  in  Indirect  Discourse          .  299 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse      .         .  299 

Indirect  Clauses 301 

VII.   Infinitive  —  Substantive  Clauses     ......  306 

I.   Infinitive 306 

Infinitive  with  Verbs 306 

Accusative  and  Infinitive  with  Verbs    .         .         .  308 

Subject  of  Infinitive 310 

Tenses  of  Infinitive 311 

Infinitive  in  Special  Constructions    .        .        .         .313 

II.  Substantive  Clauses  314 


CONTENTS. 


VIII.  Gerunds,  Gerundives,  Supines,  and  Participles          .         .  314 

I.  Gerunds 314 

II.  Gerundives 316 

III.  Supines 317 

IV.  Participles .        .        .  318 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNTAX   OF   PARTICLES. 

Adverbs 320 

Conjunctions 321 

Interjections 324 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Rules  of  Syntax 324 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS   AND   CLAUSES. 

Arrangement  of  Words 333 

Arrangement  of  Clauses 336 


PART      FOURTH. 

PROSODY 

CHAPTER  I. 

QUANTITY. 

I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity 338 

II.   Quantity  in  Final  Syllables 339 

III.   Quantity  in  Increments 342 

Increments  of  Declension 342 

Increments  of  Conjugation 344 

IV.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings 344 

V.  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables 346 

CHAPTER  II. 

VERSIFICATION. 

I.  General  View  of  the  Subject 349 

Feet .350 

Verses 351 

Figures  of  Prosody 353 


CONTENTS.  xni 

PAGE 

II.  Varieties  of  Verse 354 

I.  Dactylic  Hexameter 354 

II.  Other  Dactylic  Verses 358 

III.  Trochaic  Verse 359 

IV.  Iambic  Verse 360 

V.   Ionic  Verse 361 

VI.  Logaoedic  Verse 362 

III.  Versification  of  the  Principal  Latin  Poets  ....  364 

Vergil,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Horace 364 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace     .......  364 

Index  to  Lyric  Metres  of  Horace  .....  368 

Catullus,  Martial,  Seneca,  Plautus  Terence.         .         .         .  368 


APPENDIX. 

I.  Figures  of  Speech .  370 

II.  Latin  Language  and  Literature 374 

III.  Roman  Calendar 376 

IV.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures 378 

V.  Roman  Names 380 

Abbreviations 380 

VI.  Vowels  before  Two  Consonants  or  a  Double  Consonant  381 


Index  of  Verbs 383 

General  Index 390 


TITLES    OF  WOEKS    CITED 

f»    THE   FOOT-NOTES    OF     THIS    GRAMMAR 

Ada  Soefetatis  PMlologae  Lipsiensis.    Lipsiae,  1870-1888. 

ALLEX,  F.  D.    Remnants  oj  Early  Latin.    Boston,  1880. 

BOPP,  F.     Vergleichende  Grammatik.    Berlin,  3d  ed.,  1870. 

BOUTKBWKK,  R.,  und  TEGGE,  AUG.     Die  altsprachliche    Orthoepie  und  dit 

Praxit.    Berlin,  1878. 
BRAKBACH,  W.     Hulfsbuchlein  fur  lateinische  Rtchtschreibung.     Leipzig,  8d 

ed.,  1887. 
BRAMBACH,  W.     Die  Nengestaltung  der  lateinischen  Orthographic.     Leipzig, 

1868. 

Biu:<iii  ANN,  K.    Grundriss  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik.     Strassburg,  1886. 
BflCHELER,  F.     Grundriss  der  lateinischen  Declination.  Leipzig,  1866;   Bonn, 

1879. 
BONGKR,  C.     Die  lateinische  Quantit&t  in  positwnslanyen  Silken.    Strassburg, 

1881. 

CHRIST,  W.     MetriJc  der  Griechtn  und  Romer.    Leipzig,  1874. 
CORSSEN,    W.      Aussprache^     VocaMemus,    und    Betonung    der    lattinisehen 

Spracht.     Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1868. 
CORSSEN,  W.     KrUische  Beitrage.    Leipzig,  1868. 

CURTIDS,  G.    Zur  Chronologie  der  wdo-germanisclien  Sprach/ortchung.    Leip- 
zig, 2d  ed.,  1873. 

CTTBTITJS,  G.     Dot  Verbvm  der  grieohisohen  Sprache.    Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1880. 
DKLBKCCK,  B.     Ablativ,  Locate,  Inttrumentalis.    Berlin,  1867. 
DELBHCOK,  B.     Der  Gebrauch  dts  Gonjvnctivt  und  Optative  vm  Sanskrit  und 

Griechischen.    Halle,  1871. 

DELBRCOK,  B.    Mnleitung  in  das  Sprachetudium.    Leipzig,  1880. 
DRAEOER,  A.    Hietorische  Syntax  der  lateinischen  Sprache.    Leipzig,  2d  ed., 

1881. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin.     London,  1874. 
FOKRSTER,   W.     Sestimmung  der  lateinischen    Quantitdt  aus  dem  Roman- 

ischen.     Rheinisches  Museum,  xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299.     Frankfurt  am  Main. 
HARTUKO,  J.  A.     Die  Casus,  ihre  Bildung  und  Bedeutung.     Erlangen,  1881. 
HOFFMANN,  E.    Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln.     Wien,  1873. 
HOLZWBISSIO,  FR.     Localistische  Catustheorie.    Leipzig,  1877. 
HffBsoHMANN,  H.     Zvr  Casuskhre.     Munchen,  1875. 

JOLLY,  J.     Geschichte  des  Jnjinitivs  im  Indo-germanischen.    Muncnen,  1873. 
KuHir,  A.    ZtiUchrift  fur  cergleichende  Sprachforsehung.    Berlin.  1861-1888 


TITLES   OF  WORKS   CITED. 

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,  E.    Die  Syntax  von  Quom.    Breslau,  1870. 
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Berlin,  1888. 

MKBGUET,  H.    Lateinitche  Formenbildung.    Berlin,  1870. 
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LATIN  GRAMMAB. 


1.  LATIN"  GRAMMAB  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  Latin 
language.     It  comprises  four  parts  : 

I.  ORTHOGRAPHY,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II.  ETYMOLOGY,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  SYNTAX,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  PROSODY,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


PART  FIRST. 
OETHOGRAPHY. 


ALPHABET. 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of  w.1 

1  The  Romans  derived  their  alphabet  from  the  Greek  colony  at  Comae.  In  Its  origi- 
nal form  it  contained  twenty-one  letters :  A,  B,  0,  D,  E,  F,  H,  L,  K,  L,  M,  N,  O,  P, 
Q,  K,  8,  T,  U,  X,  Z.  C  was  a  modification  of  the  Greek  gamma,  and  F  of  the  digam- 
ina.  (j  was  the  Greek  koppa,  which  early  disappeared  from  the  Greek  alphabet.  <?  had 
the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  g ;  K,  the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  c.  Z  early  dis- 
appeared from  the  Latin  alphabet,  but  wan  subsequently  restored,  though  only  in  foreign 
words.  Throughout  the  classical  period  only  capital  letters  were  used.  On  the  Alphabet, 
see  Whitney,  pp.  59-70 :  Papillon,  pp  23-48:  Wordsworth,  pp.  &-10 ;  Eoby,  I.,  pp.  21-«2; 
Sievere,  pp.  24-10E ;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  1-846 ;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  S&-49. 

2 


2  ALPHABET. 

1.  C  In  the  fourth  century  B.  o.  supplied  the  place  both  of  C  and  of  ff. 

2.  <?,  introduced  in  the  third  century  B.  c.,  was  formed  from  C  by  simply 
changing  the  lower  part  of  that  letter. 

3.  Even  in  the  classical  period  the  original  form  C  was  retained  in  ab- 
breviations of  proper  names  beginning  with  G.    Thus  C.  stands  for  G&im, 
On.  for  Gnaeus.    See  649. 

4.  J,  y,  modifications  of  /,  i,  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  century  of  our 
era  to  distinguish  the  consonant  /,  *  from  the  vowel  /,  i,  are  rejected  by  many 
recent  editors,  but  retained  by  others.1 

5.  The  letters  u  and  z>,  originally  designated  by  the  character  F,*  are  now 
used  in  the  best  editions,  the  former  as  a  vowel,  the  latter  as  a  consonant. 

6.  In  classical  Latin,  k  is  seldom  used,  and  y  and  z  occur  only  in  foreign 
words,  chiefly  in  those  derived  from  the  Greek. 

3.  Letters  are  divided  according  to  the  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  at  the  time  of  utterance  into  two  general 
classes,  vowels  and  consonants,*  and  these  classes  are  again 
divided  into  various  subdivisions,  as  seen  in  the  following 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 
L  VOWELS. 


1.  OPEN  TOWEL* 

2.  MEDIAL  VOWELS 

3.  CLOSE  VOWELS* 


1  Throughout  the  classical  period,  /,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  7,  i  and  J,  j.  As  practical  convenience  has,  however,  already  sanc- 
tioned the  use  of  i,  u,  and  *,  characters  unknown  to  the  ancient  Romans,  may  it  not  also 
Justify  the  use  of  J,  j  In  educational  works,  especially  as  the  Romans  themselves  at- 
tempted to  find  a  suitable  modification  of  7  to  designate  this  consonant  ? 

*  Originally  V,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  supplied  the  place  of  U,  u 
and  V,  »,  but  it  was  subsequently  modified  to  U. 

3  If  the  vocal  organs  are  sufficiently  open  to  allow  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  vocal 
sound,  a  vowel  is  produced,  otherwise  a  consonant ;  but  the  least  open  vowels  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  most  open  consonants.  Thus  i,  sounded  fully  according  to  the 
ancient  pronunciation  as  ee,  is  a  vowel ;  but,  combined  with  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable, 
it  becomes  a  consonant  with  the  sound  of  y:  e'-l  (d'-ee,  vowel),  S'-jua  (a'-yua,  conso 
nant,  almost  identical  in  sound  with  d'-ee-us). 

*  In  pronouncing  the  open  vowel  a  as  in  father,  the  vocal  organs  are  fully  open.    By 
gradually  contracting  them  at  one  point  and  another  we  produce  in  succession  the  medial 
vowels,  the  close  vowels,  the  semivowels,  the  nasals,  the  aspirate,  the  fricatives,  an<*. 
finally  the  mutes,  in  pronouncing  which  the  closure  of  the  vocal  organs  becomes  complete 

6  £ls  a  medial  vowel  between  the  open  a  and  the  close  i,  o  a  medial  vowel  between 
the  open  a  and  the  close  u ;  i  is  a  palatal  vowel,  u  a  labial ;  y  was  introduced  from  the 
Greek.  The  vowel  scale,  here  presented  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  may  be  represented  at 
» line,  with  a  in  the  middle,  with  i  at  the  palatal  extreme,  and  with  u  at  the  labial  extreme  • 

1  e  a  o  a 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION.  8 

H.    CONSONANTS. 

GUTTURALS.       DENTALS.       LABIALS. 

1.  SEMIVOWELS,  sonant          ,        .        .    i  or  j  =  ^  v  =  w 

2.  NASALS,  sonant     ....  n '  n  m 

3.  ASPIRATE,  surd         ....          h 

4.  FRICATIVES,  comprising 

1.  Liquids,  sonant    ...  1,  r 

2.  Spirants,  surd         ...  •  f 
fc.  MUTES,  comprising 

1.  Sonant  Mutes       ...  g  d  b 

2.  <S«rc?  .Jfwtes  c,  k,  q  t  p 
NOTB  1.— Observe  that  the  consonants  are  divided, 

I.  According  to  the  ORGANS  chiefly  employed  in  their  production,  into 

1.  Gutturals — throat  letters,  also  called  Palatals ; 

2.  Dentals — teeth  letters,  also  called  Linguals ; 

3.  Labials — lip  letters. 

II.  According  to  the  MANNER  in  which  they  are  uttered,  into 

1.  Sonants,  or  voiced  letters  ; 

2.  Surds,  or  voiceless  letters* 

NOTE  2. — X=  cs,3  and  z  =  ds,  are  double  consonants,  formed  by  the  union 
of  a  mute  with  the  spirant  K. 

4.  DIPHTHONGS  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  vowels 
in  one  syllable. 

NOTB. — The  most  common  diphthongs  are  aet  oet  au,  and  eu.  Ei,  oi, 
and  ui  are  rare.4 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.* 

5.  VOWELS. — The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 

1  With  the  sound  of  n  in  concord,  linger.  It  occurs  before  gutturals  :  congrffwus, 
meeting1. 

a  The  distinction  between  a  sonant  and  a  »urd  will  be  appreciated  by  observing  the 
difference  between  the  sonant  b  and  its  corresponding  surd  p  in  such  words  as  bad,  pad. 
B  Is  vocalized,  p  is  not. 

'  X  often  represents  the  union  of  g  and  *,  but  in  such  cases  g  is  probably  first  assimi- 
lated toe;  see  3O,  33, 1. 

4  Proper  diphthongs  were  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  an  open  or  medial  vowel, 
a,  «,  or  o,  with  a  close  vowel,  i  or  u,  as  ai,  ei,  oi,  av,  eu,  ou.  An  improper  diphthong 
was  also  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  close  vowels,  as  ui.  For  the  weakening  of  these 
original  diphthongs,  sec  23.  note. 

b  In  this  country  three  distinct  methods  are  recognized  in  the  pronunciation  of  Latin. 
They  are  generally  known  as  the  Roman,  the  Enr/lMi,  and  the  Continental  Methods. 
The  researches  of  Corssen  and  others  have  revealed  laws  of  phonetic  change  of  great 
value  in  tracing  the  history  of  Latin  wwds.  Accordingly,  whatever  method  of  pronun- 
ciation may  be  adopted  for  actual  use  in  the  class-room,  the  pupil  should  sooner  or 
later  be  made  familiar  with  the  leading  features  of  the  Roman  Method,  which  is  at  least 
•n  approximation  to  the  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  language. 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


LONG. 

S  like  d  in  father :      d'-rls.1 
9   u    e  "  prey:'         3'-di. 
I    "     ?   "  machine : 2  I'-rl. 
5    "     o  "  old:  o'-rfls. 


SHOBT. 

a  like  a  in  Cuba : 3  a  -met, 

e    "    e  "  net:  re'-^ef. 

i     "     i  "  cigar:  vi'-det. 

o    "    o  "  obey:  mo' -net. 


u   "    w"  rule:*         a'-n5.  u    "    w  "  full:        sw'-miw. 

1.  A  short  vowel  in  a  long  syllable  is  pronounced  short :  sunt,*  u  as  in 
»«m,  su'^nus.    But  see  16,  note  2. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  tht 
Latin  i  and  «,  similar  to  the  French  u  and  tne  German  u ,  Ny-sa 

3.  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  #,  and  followed  by  another  vowei, 
is  a  semivowel  with  the  sound  of  y  in  yet  (7) :  A-cha-w,  ^A-ka'-ya). 

4.  U 5  in  #«,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound  of 
w :  qw  (kwe),  lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  sud'-sit  (swa'-sit). 

6.  DIPHTHONGS. — In  diphthongs  each  vowel  retains  its 
own  sound : 

ae  (for  ai)  like  the  English  ay  (jes) :  rnin:  sae." 
au  like  ow  in  how  :  cau'-sa. 

oe  (for  oi)  like  oi  in  coin :  foe'-dus. 

1.  Ei  as  in  veil,  eu  with  the  sounu,    >"  "  and  u  combined,  and  oi~*o«, 
occur  in  a  few  words :  dein?  neu  -ter,  protu. 

7.  CONSONANTS.  —  Most   of    the   consonants   are   pro- 
nounced nearly  as  in  English,  but  the  following  require 
special  notice : 

o  like  k  in  king:  cg'-fes  (kay-lace),  cl'-vl  (kS-wS). 
g    "   g  "  get :     re'-gunt,  re'-ffis,  ge'-nus. 

1  The  Latin  vowels  marked  with  the  sign  ~  are  long  in  quantity,  \.  e.,  in  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sound  (16) ;  those  not  marked  are  short  in  quantity ;  see  16,  note  8. 
9  Or  e  like  a  In  made,  I  like  e  in  m#,  and  u  like  oo  in  moon. 

*  The  short  vowels  can  be  only  imperfectly  represented  by  English  equivalents.    In 
theory  they  have  the  same  sounds  as  the  corresponding  long  vowels,  but  occupy  only 
half  as  much  time  in  utterance. 

4  Observe  the  difference  between  the  length  or  quantity  of  the  vowel  and  the  length 
or  quantity  of  the  syllable.    Here  the  vowel  u  is  short,  but  the  syllable  mint  is  long; 
see  16, 1.    In  syllables  long  irrespective  of  the  length  of  the  vowels  contained  in  them,  it 
is  often  difficult  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible  to  determine  the  natural  quantity 
of  the  vowels ;  but  it  is  thought  advisable  to  treat  vowels  as  short  in  all  situations  where 
there  are  not  good  reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

5  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  in- 
stances by  the  preceding  consonant,  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.    See  Papillon,  p 
50;  Peile,  p.  3S3;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  TO,  and  85. 

•  Combining  the  sounds  of  a  and  i. 

7  When  pronounced  as  monosyllables  in  poetry  (6O8,  III.) ;  otherwise  as  dissyllable* 
ie'-in,  pro'-in. 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.  ft 

J  like  y  in  yet :     fa' -stum  (yoo-stum),  ja'-cet. 
8    "    a  "  son:    sa'-cer,  so'-ror,  A'-si-a. 
t     "    t  "  time :  ti'-mor,  to' -tits,  Oc'4i-0. 
v    "    w  "  we :     va'-dum,  vi'-d,  vi'-ti-um} 

NOTE.— Before  «  and  t.  b  has  the  sound  of  p  :  urbs,  subt-Ur,  pronounced  urpt..  tup'- 
ttr.*    Ch  has  the  sound  of  A :  cho'-rus  (ko'-rns). 

8.  SYLLABLES. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables, 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs:  md'-re, 
per-xu&'-de,  men'-sae. 

2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it — 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable:3  pa'-ter,  pa'-trgs,  ye -ne-rl,   do'-mi-nus,  nS'-stit,  si'-stis, 
clau'-stra,  mSn'-sa,  bel'-lum,  tem'-plum,  imp'-tus.     But — 

8.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant :  a6'-es,  ob-l'-re. 

ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.* 

9.  VOWELS. — Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short 
English  sounds.* 

10.  LONG  SOUNDS. — Vowels  have  their  long  English 
sounds — a  as  in  fate,  e  in  mete,  i  in  pine,  o  in  note,  u  in 
tube,  y  in  type — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel : 

8e,  si,  ser'-vi,  ser'-vo,  cor'-nu,  mi'-sy. 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a  vowel  or  diphthong : 

De'-us,  de-o'-i-um,  de'-ae,  di-e'-i,  ni'-M-lnm.6 

1  There  is  some  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  Bound  of  v.    Corssen  gives  It  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word  the  sound  of  the  English  r,  in  all  other  situations  the  sound  of  to. 
J  On  Atsimilation  in  Sound  in  this  and  similar  cases,  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

3  By  some  grammarians  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  either  a 
Latin  or  a  Greek  word  is  always  joined  to  the  following  vowel,  as  o'-mnis,  i'-pse.    Roby, 
jn  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the  Romans  pronounced  with  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  fol- 
lowing consonants  as  could  be  readily  combined  with  it. 

4  Scholars  in  different  countries  generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  pro- 
nounce their  own  languages.    Accordingly  in  England  and  in  this  country  the  English 
Method  has  in  general  prevailed,  though  of  late  the  Roman  pronunciation  has  gained 
favor  in  many  quarters. 

*  These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the  consonants 
which  accompany  them.    Thus,  before  r,  when  final,  or  followed  by  another  consonant, 
«,  i,  and  u  are  scarcely  distinguishable,  while  a  and  o  are  pronounced  as  in  /«r,  for. 
Between  qu  and  dr,  or  rt,  a  approaches  the  sound  of  o :  quar'tu^  as  in  quarter. 

•  In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  the  aspirate  //  .•  hence  the  first  i  in  nihilum  is 
treated  ai  a  vowel  before  another  vowel;  for  the  same  reason,  eh,  ph,  and  th  are  treat*) 
M  single  mutes;  thus  th  in  Athon  and  Otliryx. 


6  ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

3.  In  penultimate'  syllables  before  a  single  consonant, 
or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid : 

Pa'-ter,  pa'-tres,  ho-no'-ris,  A'-thos,  O'-thrys. 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a  single  con> 
sonant,  or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  : 

Do-lo'-ris,  cor'-po-ri,  con'-su-lis,  a-gric -o-la. 

1)  A  unaccented,  except  before  consonants  in  final  syllables  (11,  1),  hai 
the  sound  of  a  final  in  America:  men'-sa,  a-cu'-tus,  a-ma'-mus? 

2)  I  and  y  unaccented,  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last,  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound :  nob'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Am'-y-cus  (Am'-e-cus). 

3)  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another 
vowel,  is  a  semivowel3  with  the  sound  of  y  in  yet:  A-cha'-ia  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pe '~ius  (Pem-pe'-yus),  La-to  -ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har-py'-ia  (Har-py'-ya). 

4)  U  has  the  short  sound  before  bl,  and  the  other  vowels  before  gl 
and  tl:  Pttb-lic'-o-la,  Ag-la' -o-phon,  At' -las. 

6)  U4  in  qu,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound 
of  w  :  qui  (kwi),  qua  ;  lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  liri-guis  ;  sua'-de-o  (swa'-de-o). 

6)  COMPOUND  WORDS. — When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a  consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
the  short  sound :  a  in  ab'-es,  e  in  red' -it,  i  in  in' -it,  o  in  ob'-it,  prod'-est.  But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (11,  1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds:  post'-quarn,  hos'-ee. 
E'-ti-am  and  quo'-ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  simple  words.5 

11.  SHORT  SOUNDS. — Vowels  have  their  short  English 
sounds — a  as  in  fat,  e  in  met,  i  in  pin,  o  in  not,  u  in  tub, 
y  in  myth — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant : 

A' -mat,  a' -met,  rex'-it,  sol,  con'-sul,  Te'-thys  ;  except  post,  es  final,  and  os 
final  in  plural  cases:  res,  di'-es,  hos,  a'gros. 

2.  In  all  syllables  before  x,  or  any  two  consonants  except 
a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  (10,  3  and  4) : 

Rex'-it,  bel'Jum,  rex-e'-runt,  bel-lo'-rum. 

1  Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 

*  Some  give  the  same  sound  to  a  final  in  monosyllables :  da,  qua  ;  while  others  give 
tt  the  long  sound  according  to  10, 1. 

*  Sometimes  written  j. 

4  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  instances 
by  the  preceding  consonant  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.  See  Paplllou,  p.  50;  I'eilo, 
P.  888;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  70,  and  86. 

*  Ktiam  U  compounded  of  tt  and  Jaw;  quoniam,  of(/uom  »  yawn,  cum,  and  jam 


ENGLISH  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION.  7 

3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants : 

Dom'-i-nus,  pat'-ri-bus.     But — 

1)  A,  e,  or  o  before  a  single  consonant  (or  a  mute  and  a  liquid),  fol- 
lowed by  e,  i,  or  y  before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound :  a'-ci-es, 
a'-cri-a,  me'-re-o,  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a  single  consonant  or  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  except  bl,  has  the  long  sound :  Pu'-ni-cus,  sa-lu'-bri-tas. 

3)  Compounds ;  see  10,  6). 

12.  DIPHTHONGS. — Diphthongs  are  pronounced  as  fol- 
lows : 


Ae  like  e :  Cae'-sar,  Daed'-a-lus} 
Oe  likec:  Oe'-ta,  Oed'-i-pus.1 


Au  as  in  author:    au'-rum. 
Eu  as  in  neuter:    neu'-ter. 


1.  Ei  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  height,  coin :  hei,  proin  ;  see  Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

2.  Ui,  as  a  diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  i,  occurs  in  cmt  huit  huic. 

13.  CONSONANTS. — The  consonants  are  pronounced  in 
general  as  in  English.  Thus — 

I.  C  and  Q  are  soft  (like  *  and  .;')  before  e,  i,  y,  ae,  and  oe,  and  hard  in 
other  situations :  ce'-do  (se'-do),  ci'-vis,  Cy'-rus,  cae'-do,  coe'-pi,  a'-ge  (a'-je), 
a'-gi;  ca'-do  (ka'-do),  co'-go,  cum,  Oa'-des.  But 

1.  0  has  the  sound  of  sh — 

1)  Before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a  vowel: 
no'-ci-U8  (so'-she-us) ; 

2)  Before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable :  ca-du'-ce-us  (ca- 
du'-she-us),  Sic'-y-on  (Sish'-y-on). 

2.  Ch  is  hard  like  k :  cho'-rm  (ko'-rus),  Chi'-os  (Ki'-os). 

3.  ff  has  the  soft  sound  before  g  soft :  ag'-ger. 

II.  S,  T,  and  X  are  generally  pronounced  as  in  the  English  words  son, 
time,  expect :  sa'-cer,  ti'-mor,  rex'-i  (rek'-si).  But — 

1.  5,  T,  and  X  are  aspirated  before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and 
followed  by  a  vowel — «  and  t  taking  the  sound  of  sh,  and  x  that  of  ksh :  Al'- 
n-um  (Al'-she-um),  ar'-ti-um  (ar'-she-um),  anx'-i-us  (ank'-she-us).  But 

1)  T  loses  the  aspirate — (1)  after  *,  <,  or  as:  Os'-ti-a,  At'-ti-uB,  mioe'-ti-o;  (2)  In  old 
Infinitives  In  ier:  flee' -ti-er ;  (8)  generally  In  proper  names  in  tion  (tyori):  PM-Us'- 
ti-on,  Am-phic'-ty-on. 


1  The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-tar  and  Oe'-ta,  according  to  10,  8.  but 
the  xfiort  sound  in  Daed'-a-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pus  (Ed'-l-pus),  according  lu 
11,  3,  aa  '•  would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  aainc  situations. 


g         CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

2.  5  is  pronounced  like  z — 

1)  At  the  end  of  a  word,  after  e,  at,  av,  b,  m,  n,  r :  spes,  praes.  a»«, 
mons,  pars  ; 

2)  In  a  few  words  after  the  analogy  of  the  corresponding  English  words  :  Ctie'-saf. 
Caesar;  cau'-sa,  cause;  mu'-sa,  muse;  nu'-«er,  miser,  miserable,  etc. 

3.  X  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  has  the  sound  of  z :  Xari-thus. 

14.  SYLLABLES. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables — 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs :  mo -re, 
per-sua'-de,  men'-sae. 

2.  Distribute  the  consonants  so  as  to  give  the  proper  sound  to  each 
vowel  and  diphthong,  as  determined  by  previous  rules  (10-12):  pa'-ter, 
pa'4res,  a-gro'-rum,  au-di'-vi ;  gen'-e-ri,  dom'-i-nus  ;  bel'-lum,  pat'-ri-bus  ; 
emp'-tus,  tern! -plum;  rex'-i,  anx'-i-us  ;  post'-quam,  hos'-ce.1 

CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.1 

15.  For  the  Continental   Method,  as  adopted  in  this 
country,  take — 

1.  The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  see  5  and  6. 

2.  The  English  pronunciation  of  the  consonants;8  see  13. 

3.  The  Roman  division  of  words  into  syllables ;  see  8. 

QUANTITY. 

16.  Syllables  are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long,  short, 
or  common.4 

I.  LONG. — A  syllable  is  long  in  quantity — 

1.  If  it  contains  a  diphthong  or  a  long  vowel :  Jiaec,  res.* 


1  Observe  that  compound  words  are  separated  Into  their  component  parts,  if  the  first 
of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant  (1O,  4,  6),  as  post'-quam ;  that  in  other  cases,  after  a 
vowel  with  a  long  sound,  consonants  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  the  first 
four  examples,  pa'-ter,  etc.,  and  that,  after  a  vowel  with  a  short  sound,  a  single  conso- 
nant Is  joined  to  such  vowel,  as  in  gen'-e-ri  and  dom'-i-nux;  that  two  consonants  are 
separated,  as  in  bel'-lum,  etc. ;  that  of  three  or  four  consonants,  the  last,  or,  if  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  the  last  two,  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  emp'-tw,  etc.,  but  that 
the  double  consonant  a:  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  rex'-i,  anx'-i-us. 

9  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 

3  Though  the  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  varies  somewhat  in  different  insti 
tutions. 

4  Common— i  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.    For  rules  of  quantity  $«•- 
Prosody.    Two  or  three  leading  facts  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner 

•  See  note  8  below. 


ACCENTUATION.  9 

2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  x  or  z,  or  any  two 
consonants,  except  a  mute  and  a  liquid : '  dux,  rex, 
sunt* 

II.  SHORT. — A  syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 
by  another  vowel,  by  a  diphthong,  or  by  the  aspirate  h : 
di'-es,  vi'-ae,  ni'-hil. 

III.  COMMON. — A  syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
rally short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  :  a'-grl. 

NOTE  1. — Vowels  are  also  in  quantity  either  long,  short,  or  common ;  but 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  does  not  always  coincide  with  the  quantity  of  the 
syllable.3 

NOTK  2. — Vowels  are  long  before  ns,  nf,  gn,  ym,  and  generally  before  j '•; 
oon'-sul,  in-fe-lix,  reg'-num,  seg-men'-tum,  hu'-jus.* 

NOTE  8. — The  signs  ",  *  are  used  to  mark  the  quantity  of  vowels,  the  first 
denoting  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long,  the  second  that  it  is 
common,  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short:  a-md'-bd.  All  vowele 
not  marked  are  to  be  treated  as  short.8 

NOTB  4.— Diphthongs  are  always  long. 

ACCENTUATION.4 

17.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the 
first :  men'-sa. 

NOTE.— Monosyllables  are  also  accented. 

18.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on 


1  That  is.  In  the  order  here  given,  with  the  mute  before  the  liquid ;  if  the  liquid  pre- 
cedes, the  syllable  is  long. 

*  Observe  that  the  vowel  in  such  syllables  may  be  either  long  or  short.    Thus  it  it 
long  in  rftr,  but  short  in  dux  and  mint. 

3  Thus  in  long  syllables  the  vowels  may  be  either  long  or  short,  as  in  r&r,  dux,  sunt; 
see  foot-note  4,  p.  4.    But  in  short  syllables  the  vowels  are  also  short. 

4  See  Schmitz,  pp.  8-33,  also  p.  56;  Kuhner,  I.,  p.  1-37;  also  H.  A.  J.  Munro's  pam- 
phlet on  the  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  pp.  24-26. 

6  See  p.  4,  foot-note  4.    In  many  works  short  vowels  are  marked  with  the  sign  ": 
Fitfui. 

•  With  the  ancient  Romans  accent  probably  related  not  to  force  or  stress  of  voice,  as 
with  us,  but  to  munioal pitch.    It  was  also  distinguished  as  acute  or  cireun\fleto.    Thus 
all  monosyllables  and  all  words  in  which  the  vowel  of  the  penult  is  long  and  the  final 
syllable  short  were  said  to  have  ttte  circumflex  accent,  while  nil  other  accented  words 
were  said  to  have  the  acute.    The  distinction  is  of  no  practical  value  in  pronunciation. 
On  the  general  subject  of  Accent,  see  Ellis,  pp.  8-10 ;  Koby,  I.,  pp.  98-100 ;  Kuhner,  I. 
p.  148;  Corssen.  II..  pp.  S06-808 


10  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

the  Penult,1  if  that  is  long  in  quantity,*  otherwise  on  th* 
Antepenult:1  ho-no'-ris,  con'-su-lis. 

1.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  syllable  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form.     Thus— 

1)  Genitives  in  I  for  &  and  vocatives  in  I  for  ie:  in-ge'-nl  for  in-ge'-ni-i, 
Jtfer-cu'-rl  for  Mer-cu'-ri-e. 

2)  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  final  e :  il-foc'  for  il-ll'-cf,  il-Idc  for 
if-l&'-ce,  is-tlc  for  is-fi'-ce,  etc. ;   bo-ndri  for  bo-ncl'-ne,  il-ldri  for  il-la'-ne, 
tan-ton'  for  tan-to '-ne,  au-dtiri  for  au-dls'-ne,  e-duc'  for  S-du'-ce.3 

NOTE  1. — Prepositions  standing  before  their  cases  are  treated  as  Proclitics — i.  e.,  ar« 
so  closely  united  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  word  as  to  have  no  accent  of  their 
own  :  gubju'-di-ce.  in-ter  re'-ges. 

NOTE  2.— Penults  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

2.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words ;  but — 

1)  The  enclitics,  que,  ce,  ne,  ce,  met,  etc.,  throw  back  their  accents  upon 
the  last  syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended :  ho'-mi-ne'-quef 
mtn-sa'-quef  e-go'-met. 

2)  Faeid,  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its  own 
accent:  ca^te-fa'-cit.* 

3.  A  secondary  or  subordinate  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syllable  before  the  primary  accent — on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable 
of  the  word,  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  third :  mo'-nu-e-runt^ 
mo'-nu-e.-rd'-mitsf  in-stau'-ra-ve'-runt. 

NOTE. — A  few  long  words  admit  two  secondary  or  subordinate  accents :  ho'-no-r\f- 
i  cen-tis' -si-mus.* 

PHONETIC   CHANGES. 

19.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  accord- 
ance with  phonetic  laws.' 

1  The  penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  the  antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 

3  Thus  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  not  of  the  vowel,  determines  the  place  of  the  ac- 
cent: regeri-tis,  accented  on  the  penult,  because  that  syllable  is  long,  though  its  vowel 
is  short;  see  16, 1.,  2. 

3  According  to  Priscian,  certain  contracted  words,  as  ve#-trds'  for  ves-trd'-tis,  or  with 
the  circumflex  accent,  ves-tr&s  for  ve«-trd-tis,  Sam-nls  for  Sam-ni-tis,  also  retained  the 
accent  of  the  full  form ;  but  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  multiply  exceptions  in  a  schoo'i 
grammar.    See  Priscian,  IV.,  22. 

4  By  the  English  method,  hom'-i-ne'-que,  cal'-e-fa'-dt. 

'  A  word  accented  upon  the  penult  thus  loses  its  own  accent  before  an  enclitic  : 
men'-sa,  men^ga'-que. 

•  By  the  English  method,  mon'-u-e'-runt,  mon'-u-e-rd'-mug,  hon'-o-rif'-i-cen-tif' 
ti-mu«. 

T  In  the  history  of  the  ancient  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family,  to  which  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  English  alike  belong,  the  general  direction  of  phonetic  change  has  been 
from  the  extremes  of  the  alphabetic  scale — i.  e.,  from  the  open  a  at  one  extreme  and 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

I.    CHANOKS   IN    VOWELS 

20.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened  : 

1.  In  compensation  for  the  dropping  of  consonants : 

Servoms,1  semd$,  slaves ;  regeme,  rfgis-  kings ;  potnd^  p&n$,  I  place ; 
pdla,  a  spade. 

2.  In  the  inflection  of  verbs : 

Lego,  Ugi,*  I  read,  I  have  read ;  ed6,  ?di,  I  eat,  I  have  eaten ;  fugi6,  fugl- 
I  flee,  I  have  fled. 

NOTE  1. — Sometimes  vowels  are  changed,  as  well  as  lengthened :  ago,  egl,  I  drive, 
I  have  driven;  faci6,f€cl,  I  make,  I  have  made;  see  255,  II. 

NOTE  2. — Different  forms  from  the  same  stem  or  root  sometimes  show  a  variable 
vowel :  duois,  ducis,  of  a  leader,  you  lead;  regfe,  regis,  you  rule,  of  a  king ;  tegd,  toga., 
I  cover,  a  covering,  the  toga.3  See  also  22,  1. 

21 .  Vowels  are  often  shortened : 4 

1.  Regularly  in  final  syllables  before  m  and  t  : 

Erdm,  eramf  I  was ;  moneam,  moneam,  let  me  advise ;  audidm,  audiam, 
let  me  hear;  erdtt  erat,  he  was;  amat,  amat,  he  loves;  monet,  monet,  he 
advises;  sit,  sit,  may  he  be ;  audit,  audit,  he  hears. 

2.  Often  in  other  final  syllables.     Thus — 

1)  Final  a8  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  Plural  of  Neuter  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives,1 and  (2)  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  Feminine  '' 
nouns  and  adjectives  of  the  first  declension : 

from  the  close  mutes  at  the  other— toward  the  middle  of  the  scale,  where  the  vowels  and 
consonants  meet;  see  3.  Accordingly,  in  Latin  words  we  shall  not  iinfrequently  find  e 
or  o,  or  even  i  or  M,  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  a ;  and  we  shall  sometimes  find  a 
Uquid  or  a  fricat ive  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  mute.  See  Whitney,  p.  68: 
Papillon,  p.  49;  Peile,  pp.  199  and  812. 

1  O  short  in  tervonu  is  lengthened  in  tervdt  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of;//,  and 
a  short  in  pagla,  la  lengthened  in  pdla  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of ;/. 

>  The  short  vowel  of  the  present  tense  is  here  lengthened  in  the  perfect ;  see  255,  II 

*  In  ducit,  duois,  and  in  regit,  regis,  the  variation  is  simply  in  the  quantity  of  tht 
vowel,  but  in  tegd,  toga,  it  affects  the  vowel  itself,  appearing  us  c  iu  teyO  and  o  in  toga. 
Sometimes  a  single  vowel  appears  in  one  form  while  a  diphthong  appears  in  another 
fi<le»,  faith,  foedus,  treaty. 

4  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  486  Mq. 

*  In  all  these  examples,  the  form  with  the  long  vowel  In  the  final  syllable  Is  the  earliei 
form,  and,  in  general,  is  found  nnly  In  inscriptions  and  in  the  early  poets,  as  Plautus. 
Knnius,  etc.;  while  the  form  with  the  short  vowel  belongs  to  the  classical  period. 

*  Corssen  regards  numerals  In  -gintd,  as  trl-gintd,  quadrA-gintd,  etc.,  as  Plural 
Neuters,  and  A  as  the  original  ending.    He  recognizes  also  the  Neuter  Plural  of  the  pro- 
noun with  A  in  ant-ea,  po*t-ed,  inter-ed,  praeter-ed,  ante-hd-c,  praeter-hd-c.    Bee 
Corssen,  II.,  p.  465     For  a  different  explanation,  see  3O4,  IV.,  N.  2. 

7  In  masculine  nouns  of  the  first  declension  a  final  was  short  in  the  Nominative  even 
In  early  Latin  :  xerlfxt,  a  scribe.  But  most  stems  in  <(  weakened  a  too,  and  thus  passed 
tato  the  second  declension. 


12  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

Templd,  templa,  temples ;  genera,  genera,  kinds ;  gravid,  gravia,  heavy; 
m&sa,  musa,  muse ;  bond,  bona,  good. 

2)  In  ar,  5r,  and  al  final,  &  and  0  are  regularly  shortened : 

JSegdr,  regar,  let  me  be  ruled ;  audidr,  audiar,  let  me  be  heard ;  audidr, 
audior,  I  am  heard;  honor,  honor,  honor;  orator,  orator,  orator;  moneor, 
moneor,  I  am  advised;  animdle,  animal  (27),  animal,  an  animal. 

3)  Final  e,  I,  and  6  are  sometimes  shortened : 

£ene,  bene,  well ;  nGbe,  nube,  with  a  cloud ;  nisi,  nisi,  unless ;  ill,  ibl, 
chere ;  led,  led,  a  lion ;  ego,  ego,  I. 

22.  Vowels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  are  often  changed  to 
weaker  vowels.1 

The  order  of  the  vowels,  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest,  is  as  follows : 
a,  o,  u,  e,  i» 

Thus  a  is  changed  to  o  .  .  .  u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i 

o    to    u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i 

u    to    e  .  .  .  i. 

e  to    i 

NOTE. — The  change  from  a  through  o  to  u  is  usually  arrested  at  u,  while  a 
is  often  changed  directly  through  e  to  i  without  passing  through  o  or  «.» 

1.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of 
words  by  inflection,  composition,  etc. : 

Carmen,*  carmenis,  carminis,  a  song,  of  a  song ;  friictus,  fructubus,  fruc- 
tibus,  fruit,  with  fruits ;  farid,  con-facw,  con-ficid,  I  make,  I  accomplish ; 
factus,  In-factus,  In-fectus,  made,  not  made;  damnd,  con-damnd,  condem- 
no,  I  doom,  I  condemn ;  tened,  con-teneo,  con-tineo,  I  hold,  I  contain ;  cadd, 
ca-cad-ii  ce-cid-i,  I  fall,  I  have  fallen ;  tuba,  tuba-cen,  tubi-cen,  a  flute,  a  flute- 
player. 

1  See  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  1-486.  The  process  by  which  vowels  are  shortened  (21),  weak- 
ened, or  dropped  (27\  and  by  which  diphthongs  are  weakened  to  single  vowels,  and  con- 
"onants  assimilated,  or  otherwise  changed,  is  generally  known  as  PHONETIC  DECAY.  It 


may  result  from  indistinct  articulation,  or  from  an  effort  to  secure  ease  of  utterance.  For 
a  difficult  sound,  or  combination  of  sounds,  it  substitutes  one  which  requires  less  physica' 
effort. 

11  But  w,  e,  and  i  differ  so  slightly  in  strength  that  they  appear  at  times  to  be  simply 
interchanged. 

3  That  is,  the  open  a  is  changed  either  to  the  close  «  through  the  medial  o,  as  seen 
ou  the  right  side  of  the  following  vowel-triangle,  or  to  the  close  i  through  the  medial  e, 
la  seen  on  the  loft  side : 

Open  vowel o. 

Medial  vowels 0  o 

Close  vowels i  u 

*  The  syllable  men  was  originally  man.  The  original  a  haa  been  weakened  to  e  in 
tarmtn  and  to  t  In 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  13 

2.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  without  any  such  special  cause :  * 
Puerom,  puerum,  a  boy ;  filios,  filiv-s,  son ;  sontt  sunt,  they  are ;  regont, 

regunt)  they  rule,  decumw,  decimus,  tenth;  maxunws,  mdximus,  greatest; 

tegitvmus,  I'egitimus,  lawful ;  aestumo,  aegtimd,  I  estimate. 

23.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted: 

1.  Into  a  DIPHTHONG  :  mensft-l,  mensai,  mensae,  tables ;  see  4. 

2.  More  frequently  into  a  LONG  VOWEL.     In  this  case  the  second  vowel 
generally  disappears.     Thus  e  and  i  often  disappear  after  a,  e,  and  o : 

Amdverat,  amaerafi,  amdrat,  he  had  loved;  amdvisse,  amaisse,  amdsse,  to 

have  loved  •,  fleeerunt,  fleerunt,  fierunt,  they  have  wept ;  novisse,  noisse,  nosse. 

to  know ;  servoi,  sereo,  for  the  slave. 

NOTE. — iue  proper  diphthongs  of  early  Latin  were  changed  or  weak- 

•<ned  as  follows : 

ai '  generally  into  ae ;  sometimes  into  §  or  L 
oi    generally  into  oe ;  sometimes  into  u  or  L 
ei    generally  into  I ;  sometimes  unchanged, 
au  sometimes  into  6  or  u  ;  generally  unchanged. 
eu  generally  into  u ;  rarely  unchanged. 
ou  regularly  into  u. 
Aidilis,  aedllis,  an  aedile ;  Komai,  R&mae,  at  Rome ;  amaimus,  am&mus^ 

let  us  love;  in-caedit,  in-tidit,  he  cuts  into;  mensaw,  mentis,  with  tables; 

foidus,  foedus,  treaty ;  coira,  coera,  cura,  care ;  loidos,  loedus,  ludusf  play ; 

puerois,  pueris,  for  the  boys ;  ceivis,  civw,  citizen ;  lautus,  lotus,*  elegant  •, 

ex-claud$,  ex-cludS^  I  shut  out ;  doucit,  ducit,  he  leads ;  jow,  jus,*  right. 

24.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of  the 
consonants  which  follow  them.     Thus — 

1  That  Is,  by  the  ordinary  process  of  phonetic  decay,  a  process  which  in  many  words 
has  changed  an  original  a  of  the  parent  language  to  «  or  o  in  Latin,  and  in  some  words 
to  i  or  u.  Corssen  cites  upward  of  four  hundred  Latin  words  in  which  he  supposes  a 
primitive  a  to  have  been  weakened  to  o,  e,  or  /.  Even  the  long  vowels  are  sometimes 
weakened.  Compare  the  following  forms,  in  which  the  Sanskrit  retains  the  vowel  of  the 
parent  language. 


SANSKKIT. 

LATIW. 

ENGLISH. 

SANSKRIT. 

LATIN. 

EKOLIBR. 

sapta, 

septem, 

«er«re. 

padas, 

pedus, 

/«««. 

nava, 

novem, 

nint. 

navas, 

novus, 

new. 

daca, 

decem. 

ten. 

Ttt, 

vfix, 

voice. 

mata, 

mater, 

mother. 

vacas, 

v6ds, 

of  a  roiae. 

sadas, 

sedes, 

seat. 

vacant, 

vocem. 

voice. 

1  The  forms  <i>,  oi,  ei,  au,  eu,  and  ou  are  all  found  In  early  Latin,  as  in  inscription*; 
but  in  the  classical  period  ai  had  been  already  changed  to  ae,  oi  to  oe,  and  ou  to  Q. 

3  Loidox.  the  earliest  form,  became  loedun  by  weakening  in  to  oe,  and  o  to  u  (Z'i,  2); 
then  loectus  became  Ittdux  by  weakening  oe  to  ff. 

*  Lautw,  the  earlier,  is  also  the  more  approved  form. 

•  As  eu  and  ou  were  both  weakened  to  ft,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  trustworthy  example* 
of  the  weakening  of  <•;<  to  fl. 


14  PHONETIC  CHANGES, 

1.  E  ia  the  favorite  vowel  before  r,  x,  or  two  or  more  consonants : 

Oimsis,  cineris »  (31),  of  ashes ;  judix,  judex,  judge ;  iwlitis,  mllets, 
of  a  soldier,  a  soldier. 

NOTE. — E  final  is  also  a  favorite  vowel :  servo,  serve,  O  slave ;  morieris, 
morieri,  monere,3  you  are  advised ;  mari,  mare,  sea. 

2.  I  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  n,  s,  and  t : 

ffomonis,  hominis,  of  a  man ;  pulver  or  pulvis,*  dust ;  salutes,  salutw,  oi 
safety ;  verot&s,  veritds,  truth  ;  genetor,  genitor,  father. 

3.  U  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  /  and  m,  especially  when  followed  by 
another  consonant : 

Epistola,  epistula,  letter;  volt,  quit,  he  wishes ;  facilitd*,  faciltds  (37), 
facultds,  faculty ;  monementum,  monumentwn,  monument ;  colomna,  colum* 
na,  column. 

25.  ASSIMILATION. — A  vowel  is  often  assimilated  by  a  follow- 
ing vowel.     Thus — 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  often  partially 8  assimilated.  /  is  thus 
changed  to  e  before  a,  o,  or  u :  ia,  ea,  this ;  id,  ed,  I  go ;  iunt,  eunt,  they  go ; 
iadem,  eadem,  same ;  divus,  dlus  (36,  4),  dew,  god. 

NOTE. — When  the  first  vowel  is  thus  adapted  to  the  second,  the  assimilation  is  said  to 
be  regressive,  but  sometimes  the  second  yowel  is  adapted  to  the  first,  and  then  the  as- 
similation ia  progressive.  Thus  the  ending  id  (21,  2),  instead  of  becoming  ea  as  above, 
may  become  U:  luxurid  (perhaps  for  luxuriat\  luasuriet,  luxury;  mdterid, mdteries* 
material. 

8.  A  vowel  may  be  completely  assimilated  by  the  vowel  of  the  following 
syllable  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  consonant.  Thus — 

1)  E  is  assimilated  to  i :  mehl,  mihi,  for  me ;  tebi,  tibi,  for  you ;  sebi,  titA, 
for  himself;  nehil,  nihil,  nothing. 

2)  U  is  assimilated  to  *'  .•  consuUwn,  c&nsiliwin,  counsel ;  exsulium,  ex- 
silium,  exile. 

3)  Other  vowels  are  sometimes  assimilated;  o  to  e :  bone,  bene,  bene  (21,  2), 
well ;  e  to  u :  tegurium,  tugurium,  hut ;  e  to  d :  s^cors,  socors,  stupid. 

26.  DISSIMILATION. — A  vowel  is  often  changed  by  dissimilation, 

1  Cinisfo,  from  dnis,  becomes  cineris  by  changing  «  to  r  between  two  vowels,  mak- 
ing ciniris  (31, 1),  and  by  then  changing  i  to  e  before  r. 

*  Observe  that  the  vowel  which  appears  as  i  in  mllitis  before  t,  takes  the  form  of  « 
In  rhllets  before  ts,  as  also  in  miles  for  mllets. 

3  JfonSris  becomes  manure  by  dropping  «  (36,  5),  and  changing  final  i  to  «. 

4  Observe  that  the  form  in  r  has  e,  while  that  in  s  has  i. 

6  That  is,  it  is  made  like  it,  adapted  to  it,  but  does  not  become  identical  with  it 
Thus  i  before  a  may  be  changed  to  «,  but  not  to  a. 

•  Thus  from  nouns  in  id  of  the  first  declension  were  developed  nearly  all  noun*  In  i?.t 
of  the  fifth. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  15 

L  e.,  by  being  made  unlike  the  following  vowel :  il,  el,  these  ;  ns, 
eis,  for  these.1 

NOTK.—  The  combination  ii  is  sometimes  avoided  by  the  use  of  e  in  place  of  the  sec- 
ond i :  pietdt  instead  ofpiitds,  piety ;  societds,  society ;  varietds,  variety. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,  sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  : 

Tempulum,templwm,  temple;  vinculum,  vinclum,  band ;  benigenus,  benlg- 
tius,*  benignant ;  amafi,  amo,  I  love ;  temploa,  templa,  temples ;  animate,  ani- 
mal* an  animal ;  ti-ne,  sin,  if  not ;  dice,  die,  say ;  esum,  sum,  I  am ;  esitmus, 
wmus,  we  are. 

NOTE. — After  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel  or  in  m,  est,  he  is,  often  drops  the  initial  e, 
and  becomes  attached  to  the  preceding  word :  res  optuma  est,  res  optumast,  the  thing 
is  best;  optumwn  e«t,  optumumst,  it  is  best ;  doml  txt,  dotnlat,  he  is  at  home.  In  the 
game  way  es,  thou  art,  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  when  that  word 
ends  in  a  vowel :  homo  es,  ftomf/x,  you  are  a  man.  For  the  loss  of  a  final  8  from  the  pre- 
ceding word,  see  36,  5,  1),  note. 

II.  INTERCHANGE  OP  VOWELS  AND  CONSONANTS. 

28.  The  vowel  i  and  the  consonant  i — also  written  j — are  some 
times  interchanged : 

Altior,*  higher;  maior  or  major,  greater ;  ipslus,  of  himself;  Situ  or  $ra*v 
of  him. 

29.  The  vowel  u  and  the  consonant  u — generally  written  v — are 
often  interchanged  : 

Col-ui,*  I  have  cultivated ;  vocd-m,*  I  have  called ;  ndvita,  ndvta,  nauta, 
Bailor;  voli'tus,  volutus,  rolled;  lavtus,  lautus  or  lotus,9  washed;  movtus, 
moutus,  mdbus,*  moved. 

NOTE. — The  Liquids  and  Nasals  are  sometimes  so  fully  vocalized  as  to  develop  vowels 

1  The  combination  uu  was  also  avoided  in  early  Latin  either  by  retaining  the  second 
vowel  In  the  form  of  o,  instead  of  weakening  it  to  u,  or  by  changing  qu  to  c :  equos, 
afterward  equua,*  horse;  qttom,  or  cum,  afterward,  though  not  properly  in  classical 
times,  quwn,  when.  Observe  that  when  o  becomes  u,  a  preceding  qu  become*  c  :  quom, 
cum  ;  Idi/iintiix.  locQtiM,  having  spoken.  See  Brambach,  p.  5. 

a  See  1 6,  note  2. 

3  Observe  that  after  e  is  dropped,  ft  is  shortened  in  the  final  syllable  :  animal,  ani- 
mal;  see  21,  2. 

4  In  the  comparative  ending  ior.  as  seen  in  ultior.  i  Is  a  vowel,  but  in  the  same  end- 
ing, as  seen  in  mtiior,  major,  it  is  a  consonant,  and  in  this  grammar  is  generally  written .;'. 
/  thus  becomes  j  between  two  vowels;  see  2,  4,  foot-note.    So  in  the  genitive  ending 
I'M*,  i  is  sometimes  a  vowel  and  sometimes  a  consonant. 

•  The  ending  which  appears  as  ul  In  col-ul  becomes  vl  In  vocd-vl.     U  becomes  v 
between  two  vowels. 

•  If  a  vowel  precedes  the  r  thus  changed  to  M,  a  contraction  takes  place — a-u  becom- 
ing ait,  rarely  6,  o-u  becoming  o,  and  u-u  becoming  t7  :  lavlun,  lautiui,  lotus,  washed  • 
tuvtrttw,  mou<u/t,  motVM,  moved;  juvtut,yuutu%,jntu%.  assisted. 


10  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

before  them.1    Thus  agr  (for  agrus)  becomes  ager,*  field  ;  tier  (for  dcrts),  deer,*  sharp ; 
regm,  regent,  king;  sm-  (for  «-*/«),  sum,  I  am;  «;ii  (for  emit),  sunt,  they  are. 

III.  CHANGES  in  CONSONANTS. 

30.  A  Guttural — o,  g,3  q  (qu),  or  h4 — before  s  generally  unites 
with  it  and  forms  x: 

Duct,  dux,  leader ;  pace,  pax,  peace ;  regs,  recsf  rex,  king ;  Ugs,  tea,,  l&t, 
law  ;  coqusi,  cocsif  coxl,  1  have  cooked ;  trahsi,  tracsi,  traxi,  I  have  drawn. 

NOTB  1.—  V  for  gv  In  vlvd,  I  live,  is  treated  as  a  guttural :  vivft,  vtesl,  vuel,  I  have 
Bred. 

Nora  2.— For  the  Dropping  of  the  Qwttural  before  8,  see  36, 8. 

31.  S  is  often  changed  to  r: 

1.  Generally  so  when  it  stands  between  two  vowels :  •  fldses,fi&res,  flowers ; 
fftaa,  jura,  rights ;  mensdsum,  mensarum,  of  tables ;   agro&um,  agrorum,  of 
fields;  esam,  eram,  I  was;  esamus,  eramus,  we  vier&\fuesv.nt,fuerunt,  they 
have  been ;  fuesit,fuerit,  he  will  have  been ;  amdset,  am&ret,  be  would  love ; 
regisis,  regeris^  you  are  ruled. 

NOTE.— This  phonetic  law,  in  full  force  during  the  formative  period  of  the  language, 
subsequently  became  inoperative. 

2.  Sometimes  before  m,  n,  or  v  :  casmen,  carmen,  song;  veke&rvw,  veternus, 
old;  Tiodiesnus,  hodiernus,  of  this  day  ;  Minesva*  Minerva,  the  goddess  Minerva. 

32.  D  is  sometimes  changed  to  1 : 

Dacrima,  lacrima,  tear ;  dinyua,  lingua,  language ;  odere,  ollre,  to  emit  an 
odor. 

NOTE  1.—D  final  sometimes  stands  in  the  place  of  an  original  t:  id,9  this;  istud, 
that:  illud,  that;  quo  A,  quid,  what,  which? 

NOTE  2.— Dv  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  (1)  sometimes  becomes  b  :  drtettum,  bettum, 
war;  dvis,  bit,  twice;  (2)  sometimes  drops  d:  dvigintl,  viginti,  twenty  ;  and  (8)  some- 
times drops  v :  dvis,  din,  inseparable  particle  (308),  in  two,  asunder. 

33.  PABTIAL  ASSIMILATION. — A  consonant  is  often  partially1* 
assimilated  by  a  following  consonant.    Thus— - 


1  This  occurs  between  consonants  and  at  the  end  of  words  after  consonants. 

*  The  ending  us  or  is  is  dropped  (36,  5,  2),  note),  and  r  final  vocalized  to  er;  m 
oecomes  em  in  regem,  and  urn  in  sum  ;  n  becomes  un  in  xunt. 

8  Sometimes  gu :  easstingusl,  etzstmcal,  exetintcfl,  I  have  extinguished. 
4  For  an  original  gh. 

•  The  process  seems  to  be  that  the  guttural  before  s  first  becomes  c,  and  then  unttet 
with  s  and  forms  x :  thus  in  coqutfi,  qu  becomes  c. 

*  Hence,  In  many  Latin  words,  r  between  two  vowels  represents  an  original  «. 

7  Observe  that  i  before  *  becomes  e  before  r;  see  24. 

8  For  Men-es-va,  men  weakened  to  min,  see  22, 1. 

•  For  it,  istut,  etc.    D  stands  for  t  also  in  the  old  Ablative  in  d  :  praeddd  for  prat- 
ddt,  afterward  praedd,  with  booty;  magfatratud  for  magistratiit,  magistrdtu,  from 
the  magistracy. 

to  Tiurt  it,  It  10  ndapted  or  accommodated  to  it,  but  does  not  become  the  same  letter 


PHONETIC   CHANGES.  17 

1.  Before  the  surd  8  or  t,  a  sonant  b  or  g  is  generally  changed  to  its 
corresponding  surd,  p '  or  o : 

Scribei)  tcripai,  I  have  written ;  scnbtus,  scriptus,  written ;  regsi,  recsi,  rex* 
(SO),  I  have  ruled ;  r'egtus,  r'ectus,  ruled.  See  also  35,  3,  note. 

NOTE.— Qu,  h  for  ffh,  and  »  for  gc  are  also  changed  to  c  before  s  and  t :  coqusit.1* 
focsit,  coxit,  he  has  cooked ;  coqutut,  coctiis,  cooked ;  trahsit*  tnicxit,3  traa-it,  he  hag 
drawn ;  traMus,  tractits,  drawn ;  vlvsit,*  vicsit,  vlxit,  he  has  lived ;  vlvtUrus,  vlct&run, 
about  to  live. 

2.  Before  a  sonant  1,  m,  n,  or  r,  a  surd  o,  p,  or  t  is  generally  changed 
to  its  corresponding  sonant,  g,  b,  or  d  : 

Neclego,  neglegd,  I  neglect ;  sec-mentum,  segmentum,  a  cutting;  popuUcusf 
puplicus,  piiblicus*  public ;  quadra?  quadra,  a  square ;  quatrdgintd,  quadra- 
yintd,  forty. 

3.  Before  a  Labial  p  or  b,  n  is  generally  changed  to  m : 8 

JnperS,  imperd,  1  command;  inperdtor,  imperdtor,  commander;  inbelUt, 
vmbellis,  unwarlike. 

KOTE. — Before  n,  a  Labial  p  or  6  is  changed  to  m  in  a  few  words :  topnut,  tomnus, 
sleep ;  Habnium,  Samntum,  the  country  of  the  Samnites. 

4.  M  is  changed  to  n — 

1)  Regularly  before  a  Denial  Mute: 

Ewndem,  eundem,  the  same  ;  eorumdem,,  edrundem,  of  the  same ;  quemdam, 
quendam,  a  certain  one;  taint  us,  tantiu,  so  great;  quamtus,  quantus,  how 
great,  as  great. 

2)  Often  before  a  Guttural  Mute  : 

ffum-ce,  hunc,  this ;  num-ce,  nuncf  now ;  prvm-cepti,  prlnceps,  first ,  num- 
quam  or  nunqvam,9  never ;  quamquam  or  quanquarn,  although. 

1  But  ft  Is  generally  retained  (1)  before  «  in  nouns  in  bs:  wr6«,  not  urpa,  city,  and  in 
aft*,  from  ;  and  (2)  before  8  and  t  in  ob,  on  account  of,  and  nib,  under,  in  compounds  and 
derivatives:  ob-»en><in*,  observant;  ob-tftsus,  obtuse;  mtb-tcrlbfi.  I  subscribe:  siib-ter, 
under.    In  these  cases,  however,  b  takes  the  Round  of  p,  so  that  assimilation  takes  place 
in  pronunciation,  though  not  in  icriting.    It  is  probable  also  that  in  some  other  conso- 
nants assimilation  was  observed  even  when  omitted  in  writing:  inprimifi  and  im- 
primlti,  both  pronounced  imprimis.    See  Roby,  I.,  p.  Ivii. ;  M  num.  p.  10. 

2  Qu,  also  written  qv,  is  not  a  syllable ;  nor  is  u  or  »  In  this  combination  either  a 
rowel  or  a  consonant,  but  simply  a  parasitic  sound  developed  by  q,  which  is  never  found 
without  it. 

For  traghsit;  h  is  dropped,  and  (/  assimilated  to  c. 

For  gr.lgtgtt ;  the  first  g  and  the  second  n  are  dropped :  vlgstt,  vlcrit,  vltHt. 
From  populus,  the  people. 

P  is  changed  to  b,  and  o  is  weakened  to  u  ;  see  2)8. 
From  quattuor,  four. 

That  is,  the  dental  n  becomes  the  labial  m. 

"  Or  "  placed  between  two  forms  denotes  that  both  are  in  good  u»e :  nwmqitai*  ft 
In  other  cases  the  last  is  the  only  approved  form  :  nunc,  prlnceo*. 

8 


18  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

None  1. — Before  the  ending1  -que,  m  is  generally  retained : '  quloumque,  whoever, 
funnqtte,  every  one ;  nam que,  for  indeed. 

NOTB  2.—Quom-iam  or  quom-jam  becomes  quoniam,  since. 

34.  A  consonant  is  often  completely  assimilated  by  a  following 
consonant.     Thus — 

1.  T  or  d  is  often  assimilated  before  n  or  s  : 

Petna,  penna,  feather ;  mercedndrius,  mercenndrius,  mercenary  ;  concutsit. 
concussit,  lie  has  shaken. 

NOTE. — M  before  «  is  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  develops  p : 
premsit,  pressit,  he  has  pressed ;  sumsit,  sUmpsit,  he  has  taken. 

2.  D,  n,  or  r  is  often  assimilated  before  1 : 

Sedula,  sedla  (27),  sella,  seat;  unulus,  unlus  (87),  uttus,  any;  puerula, 
puerla,  puella^  girl. 

3.  B,  g,  or  n  is  often  assimilated  before  m : 

Sub-moved  or  sum-moved,  I  remove ;  supmvs,  summ/ut,  highest ;  flagma, 
flamma,  flame ;  inmotus  or  immdtus,  unmoved. 

NOTE. — For  ASSIMILATION  in  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

35.  DISSIMILATION. — The  meeting  of  consonants  too  closely  re- 
lated and  the  recurrence  of  the  same  consonant  in  successive  syllables 
are  sometimes  avoided  by  changing  one  of  the  consonants.     Thus — 

1.  Caduleus  becomes  caemleus,  azure ;  medl-dies,  merldies,  midday. 

2.  Certain  suffixes  of  derivation  have  two  forms,  one  with  r  to  be  use  ' 
after  ?,  and  one  with  I  to  be  used  after  r : 8  dris,  alls  ;  burum,  brum,3  bu 
lum  ;  3  curum,  crum,  culum  : 

Populdris^  popular;  regdlis,*  kingly;  delubrum,  shrine;  tribulvm,  thresh- 
ing-sledge ;  sepulcrum,  sepulchre  ;  periculum,  peril. 

8.  A  Dental  Mute— d  or  t — may  unite  with  a  following  t  in  two  ways: 

1)  Dt  or  tt  before  r  may  become  st : 

Bodtrum,  rostrum,  a  beak ;  equettris,  equestris,  equestrian. 

2)  Dt  or  tt  before  a  vowel  may  become  SB  or  s : 6 

Fodtus,  fossus,  dug ;  mdtut,  insw,  seen ;  plaudtus,  plausut,  praised ;  met- 
tue,  messus,  reaped ;  v&ttus,  versus,  turned. 

*  Bat  probably  with  the  sound  otn;  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

a  Thia  distinction  is,  however,  not  always  observed.  The  form  with  2,  probably 
weakened  from  that  with  r,  became  the  favorite  form,  «nd  was  generally  used  if  /  did 
•ot  preoedu. 

*  From  tr~rnin  HX  formed  (1)  brum  by  dropping  u,  and  (2)  bulum  by  weakening  r 
k>tO  L    ID  tb*  wiiio  way  orum  and  culum,  are  formed  from  curum. 

*  In  populdrili  Arts  is  used  because  I  precedes;  but  in  regalia,  alit  is  used  becaus* 
r  fweced«&.    When  neither  I  nor  r  precedes,  the  weakened  form  dlis  is  used. 

*  I&  regard  to  the  exact  process  by  which  dt  or  tt  becomes  ss  or  «,  there  is  a  divenit; 
jf  opinion  among  philologians.     See  FaptUon,  p.  75 ;   Boby,  p.  62:  CorsBen,  L,  i>.  'Mi 
•*ote,  D.  188, 1ST;  Otfhuff,  p  HO. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  ft 

SOTB. — Lfft  may  become  It; '  rgt,  rs; '  lit,  la;9  and  rrt,  rs:9  mulptus,  mvltus, 
milked;  tpargtw,  tparsus,  scattered;  fa lltus,  falsus,  false;  verrtvs,  veryut,  swept 

36.  OMISSION. — Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped.     Thus — 
1.  Some  words  which  originally  began  with  two  consonants  have  dropped 

the  first : 

Cldmentumf  lamentum,  lamentation;  gnatus,  ndtus,  born;  gndtus,4  ndtus, 

known ;  dvlgintl,  vigintt,  twenty ;  sfalUt,fallit,  he  deceives. 

.     2.  A  Dental  Mute — d  or  t — before  a  is  generally  dropped  :  * 

Lapids,  lapis,  stone ;  aetats,  aetds,  age ;  mttets,  miles,  soldier ;   claudsi, 

clausi,  I  have  closed. 

NOTE. — D  is  occasionally  dropped  before  other  consonants :  hod-ce,  /tool,  hoc,  thta ; 

quod-drcd,  quocvrca,*  for  which  reason  :  ad-gnosc6,  dgndscd,  I  recognize. 

3.  A  Guttural  Mute — o,  g,  or  q  (qu) — is  generally  dropped — 

1)  Between  a  Liquid  and  s  : 

Mulcsit,  mulsit,  he  has  appeased;  fulggit^fulsit^  it  has  lightened. 

2)  Between  a  Liquid  and  t : 

Fulctus,  fuUus,  propped  ;  tarctut,  tcurbus,  repaired. 

3)  Between  a  Liquid  and  m  : 

Fulgmen,fulmen,  lightning ;  torqunientum,  torm<*ti/m,  engine  for  hurling 
missiles. 

NOTE  1.— A  Guttural  Mute  is  occasionally  dropped  in  other  situations.7 
Thus— 

1.  C before  m  and  ci  before  n  :  luomen,  Himen,  light;  lucma,  Ifina,  moon. 

2.  C  between  n  and  d  ort:  qwlnctus,  qulntus,  fifth;  qulncdecim,  qu'indecim,  fif- 
teen. 

8.  G  before  m  or  n  :•  Ktiigmen.  ewlmen  (ISO,  1),  a  swarm ;  jugmentum^jumentum, 
beast  of  burden :  magmilt,  mavult,  he  prefers ;  bregviK,  brems,  short 

Nont  2.— X  is  sometimes  dropped  :  seotd ecim,  tedecim  (20, 1),  sixteen ;  eeaenl,  senl, 
six  each ;  tfxuln,  tetela.  ti'la.  a  web ;  axula,  axla,  din,  wing. 

NOTB  8. — A^,'  r,  and  *  are  sometimes  dropped  :  in-gnotus,  ignfituH,  unknown ;  for- 
montut,  formosut,  beautiful;  quotient,1*  quoties,  how  often;  deciens,  deciet,10  tec 


1   '/'  is  changed  to  «,  and  g  is  dropped. 

a  T  is  changed  to  «,  and  one  I  is  dropped  in  lit,  and  one  r  in  rrt. 

*  Compare  clamO,  I  cry  out. 

4  Seen  in  l-gndtut,  Igrwtwt,  unknown. 

*  Probably  first  assimilated  and  then  dropped  :  lapidn,  laptw,  lapis.    But  the  dental 
is  •omctimes  as»tmilate«l  and  retained :  rf<lxi,  cetsl,  I  have  yielded :  concuttit,  concut- 
»it,  be  has  shaken. 

*  O  lengthened  in  compensation  ;  see  2O,  1. 

7  Swtiut  becomes  Sestiwt,  a  proper  name;  geoKenil,  stiicentl,  six  hundred;  and 
mi.rtuK.  mlttut,  mixed,  by  dropping  the  mute  contained  in  the  double  consonant  v. 

*  G  has  also  been  dropped  in  did  for  agio,  I  say  ;  nwjor  for  magior,  greater,  etc. 

*  In  numerals  nt  is  sometimes  dropped  :  ducentnl,  ditcinl,  two  hundred  each;  vl- 
ffant-timux  or  vlcent-simw,  vlgMmti*  or  vlciirimut,  twentieth. 

10  So  in  all  numeral  adverbs  in  i'2n«,  &n.    The  approved  ending  in  most  numeral 


20  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

times ;  muUer-bris,  mulUbris,  womanly ;  prdrsa,  pr6sa,  prose ;  isdem,  Idem,  same 
jUs-dex.,  j&dex,  judge;  audlsne,  audlne,  audln,  do  you  hear?  vlsne,  vine,  vln,  d« 
you  wish  ? 

4.  A  Semivowel — j  or  v,  also  written  i  or  u — is  often  dropped : 

Bi-jugae,  biugae,  bigae,  chariot  with  two  horses ;  quadri-jugae,  quadrigae, 
chariot  with  four  horses ;  con-junctus,  co-junctus,  cunctus,  the  whole  ;  abjieio 
or  abicw,1  I  throw  away ;  divitior,  diitior,  ditior,  richer ;  nevolS,  neolS,  nol&,  I 
*m  unwilling ;  amaverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved.2 

NOTE.— Separate  words  are  sometimes  united  after  the  loss  of  v  .-  «J  vis,  silt,  sis,  i. 
you  wish ;  8l  vultis,  »iullis,  sultis,  if  you  wish. 

5.  Final  consonants  are  often  dropped.    Thus— 

1)  Final  a  is  often  dropped : 3 

Mon&ris,  monere  (24, 1,  note),  you  are  advised;  illus,  illu,  ille,  that;  istus, 
istu,  iste,  that  of  yours ;  ipsus,  ipsu,  ipse,  self,  he ;  parricidos,*  parricida,  par- 
ricide; magis  or  mage,  more ;  am*,  sive,  whether,  lit.,  if  you  wish. 

NOTE.— In  the  early  poets  es,  thou  art,  and  est,  he  is,  after  having  dropped  the  initial 
«,  sometimes  become  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  which  has  lost  its  final  « :  verittu 
es,  rei-itu's,  you  feared ;  t<- input  eat,  tempust,  it  is  time ;  virtus  eat,  viriust,  it  is  virtue. 
Bee  87,  note. 

2)  A  final  d  or  t  is  often  dropped : 

Cord,  cor,  heart ;  praeddd,  praedaf  with  booty  ;  intrad,  intrd,  within ;  ,/a« 
divined,*  facilli/ne,  most  easily ;  verieruntj  verieru,  veriere,  they  have  come ; 
rSxerunt,  rexere,  they  have  ruled. 

NOTE. — Sometimes  both  a  vowel  and  a  consonant  disappear  at  the  end  of  a  word : 
puerus,  pue>\  boy  (51,  2,  4));  deinde  or  dein.  thereupon ;  nihilum  or  nihil,  nothing. 

3)  A  final  n8  is  generally  dropped  in  the  Nominative  Singular  from 
sterns  in  on: 

Ledn,  le&,  lion ;  praeddn,  praedfi,  robber ;  homon,  komS,  man. 

tdverbs  is  ><~s,  but  in  those  formed  from  indefinite  numerals,  as  tot,  yuot,  it  is  i?n* 
totiens,  quotitns. 

1  This  is  the  approved  form  in  verbs  compounded  otjacio  and  monosyllabic  preposi- 
tions; but  abioio  is  pronounced  as  if  written  abjicif)  or  dft-iido,  1.  e.,  •£  =ji,  pronounced 
ye  by  the  Roman  method.  The  syllable  db  thus  remains  long. 

5  Several  adverbial  forms  were  produced  by  the  loss  of  v  with  the  attendant  changes  : 
"evomus,  reorsus,  rttrsus,  back ;  subsvorfium,  susvwsum,  sitorsum,  sUrsum,  from  be 
low,  on  high. 

*  In  early  inscriptions  proper  names  in  os,  afterward  w«,  occur  without  the  »  as  often 
»s  with  it :  Roscios,  Rascio ;  Gabinios,  Gabinio. 

4  This  form  actually  occurs  in  early  Latin. 

*  The  Ablative  singular  euded  anciently  in  d,  originally  t.    Many  prepositions  and 
»dverbs  in  d  and  e  are  ablatives  in  origin,  and  accordingly  ended  in  d. 

*  Written  with  one  I,  afterward  with  two. 

*  Here  final  t  was  first  dropped,  then  n,  having  become  final,  also  disappeared,  and  it 
ht>t  final  u  was  weakened  to  e  ;  see  24, 1,  note. 

*  ID  early  inscriptions  final  m  is  often  dropped. 


ETYMOLOGY.  21 

PART  SECOND. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

37.  ETYMOLOGY  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection 
and  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns,   Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,   Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections. 

CHAPTER    I. 

NOUNS. 

39.  A  Noun  or  Substantive  is  a  name,  as  of  a  person, 
place,  or  thing :    Cicero,  Cicero  ;    Roma,  Rome ;    domut, 
house. 

1 .  A  PROPER  NOUN  is  a  proper  name,  as  of  a  person  or  place :  Cicerd , 
Roma. 

2.  A  COMMON  Not  \  is  a  name  common  to  all  the  members  of  a  class 
of  objects :  vir,  man  ;  equus,  horse.     Common  nouns  include — 

1)  Collective   Nouns,   designating    a   collection   of    objects  :    populus, 
people ;  exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Noumt,  designating  properties  or  qualities :  virtus,  virtue ; 
jQstitia,  justice. 

8)  Material  Nouns,  designating  materials  as  such :  aurum,  gold  j 
tignum,  wood ;  aqua,  water. 

40.  Nouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 

I.  GENDER. 

41.  There  are  three  genders' — Masculine,  Feminine,  and 
Neuter. 

NOTE. — In  some  nouns  gender  is  determined  by  signification  ;  in  others,  by  endings. 

1  In  English,  Gender  denotes  neat.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males ; 
feminine  nouns,/«wa/<>*;  and  neuter  nouns,  objects  which  are  neither  male  nor  female. 
In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  is  applied  only  to  the  names  ol 
males  and  .females :  while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an  artificial  di» 
Unction  according  to  grammatical  rules. 


32  PERSON  AND  NUMBER.     CASS& 

42.  GENERAL  RULES  FOR  GENDER. 
I.  MASCULINES. 

1.  Names  of  Males:  Cicero;  vir,  man  ;  rex,  king. 

2.  Names   of    Rivers,    Winds,   and    Months:    Rhenus^ 
Rhine  ;  Notus,  south  wind  ;  Mdrtius,  March. 

II.  FEMININES. 

1.  Names  of  Females :  mulier,  woman  ;  leaena,  lioness. 

2.  Names  of   Countries,   Towns,   Islands,   and    Trees  .- 
Oraecia,  Greece ;  Roma,  Rome  ;  Delos,  Delos  ;  pirus,  pear- 
tree. 

NOTE. — Indeclinable  noons,1  infinitives,  and  all  clauses  used  as  nouns  are  neuter: 
alpha,  the  letter  a.2  See  also  532. 

43.  REMARKS  ON  GENDER. 

1.  EXCEPTIONS. — The  endings  3  of  nouns  sometimes  give  them  a  gender 
at  variance  with  these  rules.     Thus,  some  names  of  rivers,  countries,  towns, 
islands,  trees,  and  animals  take  the  gender  of  their  endings ;  see  53,  1. 

2.  MASCULINE  OR  FEMININE. — A  few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a  few  names  of  animals  are  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine,  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine :  clvis,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ;  bos,  ox,  cow. 

8.  EPICENE  NOUNS  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals.  They  are  used 
for  both  sexes,  but  have  only  one  gender,  and  that  is  usually  determined 
by  their  endings  :  dnser,  goose,  masculine ;  aqutta,  eagle,  feminine. 

n.  PERSON  AND  NUMBER. 

44.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and 
two  numbers.     The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker  ;  the 
second,  the  person  spoken  to  ;  the  third,  the  person  spoken 
of.     The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural  more 
than  one. 

HI.    CASES.4 

45.  The  Latin  has  six  cases  : 


1  Except  names  of  persons. 
"See  128,1. 

3  Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with 
the  several  declensions. 

4  The  ease  of  a  noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains  to  other  words;  as. 
John's  book.    Here  the  poxnesxire  caie  (John's)  shows  that  John  sustains  to  the  book 
the  relation  of  posxestor. 


DECLENSION.  38 

NAMES.  KNGLISH   EQUIVALENTS. 

Nominative,  Nominative. 

Genitive,  Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 

Dative,  Objective  with  to  or  for. 

Accusative,  Objective. 

Vocative,  Nominative  Independent. 

Ablative,  Objective  with  from,  with,  by,  in. 

1.  OBLIQUE  CASES. — The   Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and   Ablative 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2.  LOCATIVE. — The  Latin  has  also  a  few  remnants  of  another  case, 
called  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which. 

DECLENSION. 

46.  STEM  AND  SUFFIXES. — The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a  word  are  formed  is  called  Declension.     It 
consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  suffixes  to  one  common 
base  called  the  stem. 

1.  MEANING. — Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments— the  stem,1  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the 
cane-suffix,  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus,  in  rig-is,  of  a  king,  the  general  idea,  king,  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
riff  ;  the  relation  of,  by  the  suffix  is. 

2.  CASES  ALIKE. — But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  in  Neuters  arc  alike,  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

2)  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  the  singular  of 
nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension  (51  ).2 

3)  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 

3.  CHARACTERISTIC. — The  last  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  STEM- 
CHARACTERISTIC,  or  the  STEM-ENDING. 

47.  FIVE  DECLENSIONS. — In  Latin  there  are  five  de- 
clensions, distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem-char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as 
follows : 

1  Moreover,  in  many  words  the  stem  Itself  Is  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form 
called  a  Root  For  the  distinction  between  root*  and  gt?m«y  and  for  the  manner  in 
*Wch  the  Utter  are  formed  from  the  former,  sea  313-318. 

J  Aoid  In  tome  nouns  of  Greek  origin. 


24  FIRST  DECLENSION. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  GENITIVE   ENDIKGS. 

DEC.    I.  a  ae 

II.  o  1 

III.  i  or  a  consonant  is 

IV  u  us 

V.  S  Si 

Nora  1. — The  five  declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflec 
tion,  as  the  case-suffixes  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

NOTE  2. — But  these  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns  with 
consonant-stems,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combination  with  the  charac- 
teristic, i.  e.,  with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 

NOTE  8. — The  ending  produced  by  the  union  of  the  cast-suffix  with  the  churae 
ttristic  vowel  may  for  convenience  be  called  a  CASE-ENDING. 

FIRST   DECLENSION:    A   NOUNS. 
48.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 

a  and  e— feminine  ;  Us  and  es — masculine.1 
Nouns  in  a  are  declined  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR. 

EXAHFLK. 

MBANINfi.                1 

"ASE-ENBTWS 

Nom.  mSnsa, 

a  table,9 

a3 

Oen.    mgnsae, 

of  a  table, 

ae 

Dot.    mSnsae, 

to,  for  a  table, 

ae 

Ace.     mensam, 

a  table, 

am 

Voc.    mSnsa, 

0  table, 

a 

AU.     mSnsft, 

from,  vnth,  by  a  table,4 

a 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  mSnsae, 

tables, 

ae 

Gen.    mSnsarum, 

of  tables, 

arum 

Dot.     mensls, 

to,  for  tables, 

I» 

Ace.     mensas. 

tables, 

as 

Voc.    mSnsae, 

0  tables, 

ae 

Abl.     mensls, 

from,  vnth,  by  tables.4 

Is 

1  That  is,  nouns  of  this  declension  in  a  and  f  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as  and  f#  are 
masculine. 

2  The  Nom.  mensa  may  be  translated  a  table,  table,  or  the  table  ;  see  48,  6. 

3  These  case-Gndinys  will  serve  as  a  practical  guide  to  the  learner  in  distinguishing 
the  different  cases.    The  two  elements  which  originally  composed  them  have  undergone 
various  changes,  and  in  certain  cases  the  one  or  the  other  has  nearly  or  quite  disappeared. 
Thus  the  suffix  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular,  and  appears 
only  as  e  in  four  other  case-forms,  while  the  characteristic  a  has  disappeared  in  the  ending 
U,  contracted  from  a-is,  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ;  see  23,  2,  note. 

4  Still  other  prepositions,  as  in,  on,  at,  are  sometimes  used  in  translating  the  Ablative, 


FIRST  DECLENSION.  25 

1.  STEM. — In  nouns  of  the  first  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  PARADIGM,  observe  that  the  stem  is  mensd,  and  that  the  sev- 
eral cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  case-endings. 

3.  EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. — Like  mensa  decline : 

Ala,  wing ;  aqua,  water ;  cavsa,  cause  ;  fortHna,  fortune. 

4.  LOCATIVE. — Names  of  towns  and  a  very  few  other  words  have  a 
Locative  Singular1  in  ae,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are 
declined  in  the  singular  *  number  as  follows : 

Nom.  Roma,  Rome,  militia,  war,3 

Gen.  Romae,  of  Home,  militiae,  of  war, 

Dot.  Romae,  for  Rome*  militiae,  for  war, 

Ace.  Romam,           Rome,  mllitiam,  war, 

Voc.  Roma,  0  Rome,  militia,  0  war, 

All.  Roma,      from  Rome*  militia,     from  war, 

Loc.  RSmae,  at  Rome.  militiae,  in  war. 

6.  EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. — 1.  A  few  nouns  in  a  are  masculine  by 
signification :  agricola,  husbandman  ;  see  42, 1. — 2.  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea, 
is  masculine ;  sometimes  also  damma,  deer,  and  talpa,  mole. 

6.  ARTICLE. — The  Latin  has  no  article:  corona,  crown,  a  crown,  the 
crown ;  ala,  wing,  a  wing,  the  wing. 

49.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS. — The  following  occur:4 

1.  as  in  the  Genitive  of  familia,  in   composition  with  pater,  mater, 
flfiits,  and  f  ilia  :  paterfamilias,  father  of  a  family. 

2.  81,  an  old  form  for  the  Genitive  ending  ae,  in  the  poets : 5  mtlttl,  af- 
terward aulae,  of  a  hall. 

3.  urn '  in  the  Genitive  Plural :   Dardanidum  for  Dardaniddrum,  of 
the  descendants  of  Dardanus.        • 

4.  abus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  especially  in  dea,  goddess, 
&ndfllia,  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  dew,  god, 
and/Iftws,  son:  deabus  for  dels,  to  goddesses. 


1  In  the  Plural  of  all  nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  :  Athenit, 
»t  Athens.  Whether,  however,  the  form  Athfnis  is  in  origin  a  Locative,  an  Ablative,  01 
neither,  is  a  disputed  question.  See  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  484  seq. ;  Schleicher,  pp.  686,  587; 
Penka,  p.  194;  Delbruck,  p.  27;  Merguet,  pp.  116,  117;  Wordsworth,  p.  59.  In  most 
nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  in  both  numbers. 

3  The  Plural  when  used  is  like  the  Pluntl  of  merino. 

3  For  the  other  prepositions  which  may  be  used  in  translating  the  Dative  and  the 
Ablative,  see  45.  Militia,  war,  warfare,  military  service. 

1  To  these  nitint  be  added  for  early  Latin  a  in  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  ad  in 
»he  Abl.  Sing.;  see  21,  2, 1),  and  36,  5,  2). 

*  Also  in  inscriptions  as  the  ending  of  the  Genitive,  Dative,  and  Locative. 

•  Contracted  from  a- urn  like  the  Greek  4-wf,  u>v,  u  shortened  before  m ;  see  58O,  |  J. 


26  8XCOND  DECLENSION. 

Non.— Nouns  in  ia  sometimes  have  is  for  iis  in  the  I)atiy«  and  Ablative  Plural 
gratis  for  gratils,  from  gratia,  favor,  kindness. 

50.  GREEK  NOUNS. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  e,  3s, 
and  os  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Epitome,  epitome. 

Aeneas,  Aeneas. 

Pyrites,  pyrites. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  epitomfi 

Aeneas 

pyrites 

Gen.    epitomes 

Aeneae 

pyrftae 

Dot.    epitomae 

Aengae 

pyrttae 

Ace.     epitomeii 

Aeneam,  an 

pyrlten 

Voc.    epitome 

A  en  oft 

pyrite,  a 

Abl.     epitomC 

Aenea 

pyrite,  a 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  epitomae 

pyrftae 

Gen.    epi  torn  arum 

pyiitariim 

Dot.    epitomls 

pyritls 

Ace.     epitomfts 

pyritas 

Voc.    epitomae 

pyritae 

Abl.     epitomls 

pyritls 

NOTE  1.— In  the  Plural  and  in  the  Dative  Singular,  Greek  nouns  are  declined  flkf 
mensa. 

NOTE  2.— In  nouns  in  e  and  eg,  the  stem-ending  a  is  changed  to  e  in  certain  cases. 

NOTE  3. — Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined  like  menscu 
Many  in  e  have  also  a  form  in  a  :  epitome,  epitoma^  epitome. 

SECOND  DECLENSION:  O  NOUNS. 
51.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 
er,  ir,  us,  and  os ' — masculine  ;  um,  and  on — neuter. 
Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  um  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Servus,'  slave.      Puer,  boy.      Ager,  field.     Templum,  temple 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  serviis8  puer  ager  templum 

Gen.    servl  puerl  agrl  templl 

Dot.     serv5  puerd  agr6  templ6 

Ace.     servum  puemm  agrum  templum 

Voc.    serve  puer  ager  templnm 

Abl.     servo  puero  agro  templo 

1  Sometimes  <>*. 

*  Sometimes  written  servos  ;  see  52, 1. 

*  lo  the  Roman  and  in  the  Continental  pronunciation,  quantity  furnishes  a  safe  guide 


SJSGONJ)  DECLENSION.  37 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  servl  puerl  agrl  templn 

Gen.   servorum  puerOrum  agrorum  templdrum 

Dot.    servls  puerls  agrls  templls 

Ace.    servos  pueros  agrds  templa 

Voc.   servl  puerl  agrl  templa 

Abl.    servls  puerls  agrls  templls 

1.  STEM. — In  nouns  of  the  second  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  o 

2.  In  the  PARADIGMS,  observe— 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,  puero,  agro,  and  templn. 

2)  That  the  characteristic  o  becomes  u  in  the  endings  us  and  um,  »nd  e 
hi  sefje^  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  a,a  I,  and  is  (for  o-a, 
0-4,  and  o-w),3  and  is  dropped  in  the  forms  puer  and  ager. 

3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  o  (47,  N.  2),  are  as 
follows : 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

MABO. 

NBHT 

MASC. 

N«UT. 

Nom.  us* 

um 

Nom.   I 

a 

Gm.    I 

I 

Gen.    drum 

drum 

Dot.     6 

0 

Dot.     is 

Is 

Ace.     um 

um 

Ace.     Os 

a 

Voe.     e« 

tun 

Voc.     I 

a 

Abl.     6 

0 

Abl.     Is 

is 

4)  That  puer  and  ager  differ  in  declension  from  serous  in  dropping  the 
endings  vs  and  e  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative :  Nom.  puer  for  pmrus, 
Voc.  puer  for  puere. 

5)  That  e  in  ager  is  developed  by  the  final  r.* 

6)  That  ttmplum,  as  a  neuter  noun,  has  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a  ;  see  46,  2,  1). 

3.  EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. — Like  SERVUS  :  dominus,  master.  Like 
PCER  :  ffener,  son-in-law.  Like  AGER  :  macfiater,  master.  Like  TEMPLUM  • 
bellum,  war. 

to  the  sounds  of  the  vowels ;  see  5.  In  the  English  method,  on  the  contrary,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowels  Is  entirely  disregarded,  except  as  it  affects  the  accent  of  the  word. 
Thus,  a  in  ager  is  short  in  quantity,  but  long  in  sound  (1O,  8),  while  i  in  «ert>?«,  puer'is, 
agrl*,  and  Itntplit  is  long  in  quantity  but  short  in  sound  (11,  1).  Accordingly,  in  this 
method,  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  must  be  determined  by  the  rules  given  in  9,  1O 
trid  11.  Moreover,  the  learner  must  not  forget  that  when  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  ii 
tnown,  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  as  used  in  poetry,  is  readily  determined  by  article  16 

)  See  22  and  24,  1,  note. 

8  Shortened  from  <7 ,-  see  21,  2, 1). 

*  See  23,  note,  and  27. 

4  The  endings  of  the  Nom.  and  Voe.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  in  «r. 

•  See  29.  note. 


28  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

4.  NOUNS  IN  er  AND  ir. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  offer,  but 
the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  likepuer: 

1)  Nouns  in  ir :  vir,  tin,  man. 

2)  Compounds  infer  and.  ger :  armiger,  armigerl,  armor-bearer;  tfignifer. 
ngniferl,  standard-bearer. 

8)  Adulter,  adulterer ;  CeltiberJ  Celtiberian ;  gener,  son-in-law  ;  Iber,* 
Spaniard ;  Liber,  Bacchus ;  llberl,  children ;  Muldber,1  Vulcan  ;  presbyter 
elder ;  socer,  father-in-law ;  vesper,  evening. 

5.  Nouns  in  ius  generally  contract  il  in  the  Genitive  Singular  and  ie 
in  the  Vocative  Singular  into  I  without  change  of  accent :    Claudl  for 
Claudil,  of  Claudius,/?/?  for  fllil,  of  a  son;  Mrrcu'rl  for  Mercu'rie,  Mer- 
cury, fill  for  fllie,  son.8     In  the  Genitive  Singular  of  nouns  in  ium  the 
same  contraction  takes  place:  inge'nl  for  inge'ntl,  of  talent;  see  18,  1. 

6.  DEUS  is  thus  declined :  Sing,  dc us,  del,  deo,  deum,  dcus,  deo :  Plur.  N. 
and  V.  del,  dil,  dl;3  G.  deorum,  deum  ;  D.  and  A.  dels,  dils,  dls;3  Ace.  deos. 

7.  NEUTERS  IN  us. — The  three  neuter  nouns  in  us,4  pelagus,  sea,  virus,  poi- 
son, and  vidgw,  the  common  people,  are  declined  in  the  singular  as  follows : 

Nom.,Ace.,  Voc.   pelagus  virus  vulgus8 

Cfen.  pelagl  vW  vulgl 

Dot.,  Abl.  pelagO    ,  vlrO  vulgo 

NOTE. — Pelagus  is  a  Greek  noun  (54,  N.  2),  and  in  general  is  used  only  in  the  singu- 
lar, though  pelage,  occurs  as  an  Ace.  Plur.  Virus  and  vulgus  are  used  only  in  the 
singular.  Vulgus  has  a  masculine  Ace.,  vulgum,  in  addition  to  the  neuter  form  rulgux. 

8.  LOCATIVE. — Names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  have  a  Locative 
Singular6  in  I,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are  declined  in  the 
singular '  number  as  follows : 

Nom.  Ephesiis,          Ephesus,  bellnm,  war, 

Gen.  EphesI,         of  Ephcsw,  belli,  of  war, 

Dat.  Ephesft,      for  Ephesus,  bellft,  *or  war, 

Ace.  Ephesum,         Ephesus,  bellmn,  war, 

Voc.  Ephese,          0  Ephesus,  belliim,  0  war, 

Abl.  EphesO,  from  Ephcsus,  bello,  from,  by  war, 

Loc.  EphesI,          at  Ephesus.  belli,  in  war. 


1  Celtiber  and  Iber  have  e  long  in  the  Gen.,  and  Xwlciber  sometimes  drops  e. 
a  Nouns  in  eius  sometimes  contract  fie  in  the  Voc.  Sing,  into  fi ;  Pompe.'i  or  Pom 
pel,  Pompey. 

3  Dl  and  dis  are  the  approved  forms,  but  del,  dil  and  df,7s,  dils  also  occur. 

4  Originally  s-stemx  which  by  the  loss  of  s  in  the  oblique  cases  have  become  o-steins', 
•ee  63,  I.,  1,  foot-note. 

*  Also  written  volgut. 

'  In  the  Plural  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative :  Gabii*,  at  G«bii 
see  48,  4,  foot-note. 

1  The  Plural,  when  used,  is  like  the  Plural  of  termia,  jruer,  etc 


SECOND  DECLENSION.  29 

52.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS. — The  following  occur ;  * 

1.  os  and  om,  old  endings  for  ws  and  um,  sometimes  used  after  v  and 
u :  *  servos  for  servus,  servom  for  servum  ;  mortuos  for  mortuus,  dead. 

2.  us  for  e  in  the  Vocative  of  deus,  god ;  rare  in  other  words. 

3.  tun  in  the  Genitive  Plural,  especially  common  in  a  few  words  de- 
noting money,  weight,  and  measure:  talentum  for  talentorum,  of  talents; 
also  in  a  few  other  words :  deum  for  deorum ;  llberum  for  liberorurn ; 
Arglvum  for  Argivorum. 

NOTE.— The  ending  urn.  occurs  also  in  the  Genitive  Plural  of  many  other  words, 
especially  in  poetry.  For  the  quantity  of  u,  s'tee  p.  -25,  toot-note  6. 

53.  GENDER.—  Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  os  are  masculine,  those  in  um 
and  on  are  neuter ;  except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — (1)  See  4)8,  II.,  but  observe  that  many  names  ol 
countries,  towns,  island*,  and  trees  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings.     (2) 
Most  names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine :  also  alvus,  belly ;  carbasus,  sail ; 
coins,  distaff;  humus,  ground;  vannus,  sieve.     (3)  A  few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  The  Neuters :—pelay us,  sea;  virus,  poison;  vulgus,  common  people. 
For  declension,  see  61,  7. 

54.  GREEK  NOUNS. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os,  os, 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows : 

Delos,  P.,*  Delos.          ALdrogeos,  Androgeos.     Dion,  Uiwrn. 

Nom.  Deloa  Androgeos  Ilion 

Gen.  D61I  AndrogeO,  I  Tlil 

Dot.  D6lo  Androgeo  Tli5 

.-!'•••.  !>f-lon  Androgeon,  d  Ilion 

Voc.  D6le  Androgeos  Ilion 

Abl.  DSlo  Androgeo  Tlio 

NOTB  1.— The  Plural  of  nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain  Greek 
endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nominative  Plural,  and  <~m  in  the  Genitive. 

NOTE  2.— Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  In  us  and  um,  and  arc 
declined  like  ««rrw«  and  tempktm.  Many  In  01  or  on  have  also  a  form  in  v*  or  um. 

NOTE  3.— For  Greek  nouns  In  ens,  see  68  and  68,  1. 

NOTE  t.—1'anthftfs  has  Voc.  Panthii.    For pelagut,  see  51,  7,  note. 


1  To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin:  1)  <~>d  in  Abl.  Sing.,  and  d  in  Nom.,  Ace., 
and  Voc.  of  the  Neut.  Plur. ;  sec  36,  5,  2),  and  21,  2,  1);  2)  oe  in  Gen.  Sing. ;  oe,  e,  la, 
eis,  and  in  in  Nom.  Plur. :  poploe=popv.\l;  ploirumf =pluriuri ;  virfs=  viri;  leibereis  or 
Wfw7«=HberI. 

1  Some  recent  editors  have  adopted  cos,  uo».  rom  and  uom,  for  nut,  uus,  vum  and 
w*m,  but  the  wisdom  of  such  a  course  is  at  toast  questionable  See  Brambach,  p.  8. 

*  M.  stands  for  motculine.  F.  tot  feminine,  and  N.  for  neuter. 


30  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

THIRD  DECLENSION  :    CONSONANT  AND  I  NOUNS. 

55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a,  e,  1,  6,  y,  c,  1,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

56.  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  I. ' 

CLASS    I.— CONSONANT    STEMS. 

57.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  A  LABIAL:  B  OB  P. 

Princeps,  M.,'  a  leader,  chief. 

SINGULAR.  CASE-SmrrXM 

Nom.  prfnceps,  a  leader,  s 

Gen.  prfncipis,  of  a  leader,  is 

Dot.  prfncipl,  to,  for  a  leader,  I 

Ace.  prmcipem,  a  leader,  em 

Voc.  prlnceps,  0  leader,  s 

Abl.  principe,  from,  with,  by  a  leader •,  e 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  pnncipfcs,  leaders,  es 

Gen.  principum,  of  leaders,  um 

Dot.  principifous,  to,  for  leaders,  ibus 

Ace.  prfncipCs,  leaders,  es 

Voc.  principfis,  O  leaders,  es 

Abl.  i>nnri|ii bus,  f>'om,  with,  by  leaders.  ibus 

1.  STEM  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  this  Paradigm  observe— 

1)  That  the  stem  is  princep,  modified  before  an  addition*!  syllable  co 
frrincip  ;  see  82,  1,  and  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  separate  from  the  stem ; 3  see 
46,  1,  and  47,  note  2. 

2.  YARIAKE  VOWEL. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  consonant 
stems,  short  e  or  i  generally  takes  the  form  of  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  that  of  t  in  all  the  other  cases.     Thus  princep.\ 

1  For  Gender,  see  99-115. 

»  See  foot-note  3,  p.  29. 

*  Thus,  prvncep-H,  princip-is,  etc.  In  the  first  and  second  declensions,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  suffix  can  not  be  separated  from  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  in  such  forms  at 
mensls,  pueri,  agrlt,  etc. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


31 


prlncipis,1  and  judex,  judicis  (59),  alike  have  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  i  in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  princeps  the 
original  form  of  the  radical  vowel  is  e,  and  in  judex,  i.  For  a  similar 
change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem,  see  miles,  mllitis  (58),  and  carmen,  car 
minis1  (60).  See  also  opus,  operis  (61). 

8.  In  monosyllables  in  bs  the  stem  ends  in  i ;  see  urbs,  64. 

4.  'For  the  LOCATIVE  IN  THE  THIKD  DECLENSION,  see  66,  4. 

5.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  87,  89. 


58.  STEMS  ENDING 
Lapis,  M.,  stone. 

IN  A  DENTAL  :  D  OR  T. 
Aetas,  P.,  age.          Miles,  M.,  soldier. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

lapis 

aetas 

miles 

Gen. 

lapidis 

aetatis 

mllitis 

Dot. 

lapidl 

aetfitl 

militl 

Ace. 

lapidem 

aetateni 

militem 

Voc. 

lapis 

aetft* 

miles 

AU. 

lapide 

aetate 

iniliie 

PLURAL. 

Nom, 

lapidfis 

aetatfiH 

IlllliU'S 

Gen. 

lapidum 

aetatum 

IHllit  Illll 

Dot. 

lapidibus 

aetatibus 

militibns 

Ace. 

lapidCs 

aetat€» 

!Illlit««S 

Voc. 

lapides 

aetatCs 

mTlitfiN 

AU. 

lapidibns 

ilms 

mTlitibus 

Nep6s, 

M.,  grandson. 

Virtus,  P.,  virtue. 

Caput,  N.,  head. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

nepOs 

virtus 

caput 

Gen. 

nepotls 

virtiitia 

capitis 

Dal. 

nepotl 

virtutl 

capitl 

Ace. 

nepotem 

virtutem 

caput 

Voc. 

nepos 

virtus 

caput 

Abl. 

nepote 

virtQte 

capite 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

nepotfia 

virtut«s 

capita. 

Gen. 

nepotum 

virtutwm 

'.M  pit  HIM 

Dai. 

i  lui- 

virtutibus 

capitibus 

Sec  23, 1. 


See  82,  1,  foot-uot*. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Ace.  nepOtCs 
Voe.  nepotes 
Abl.  nepotibiis 


virtutCs 
virtutCs 

virtutilm* 


capita 
capita 
capitibws 


1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  these  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lapid,  aetdt,  mllit,  nepot,  virtut,  and  caput. 

2)  That  milt*  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  i,  and  caput,  u,  i ;  see  57,  2. 

8)  That  the  dental  d  or  t  is  dropped  before  s :  lapis  for  lapids,  aetds  for 
aetdts,  miles  for  milets,  virtus  for  virtats  ;  see  36,  2. 

4)  That  the  case-suffixes,  except  in  the  neuter,  caput  (46,  2),  are  the  same 
as  those  given  above  ;  see  57. 

5)  That  the  neuter,  caput,  has  no  case-suffix  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Singular,  a  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
Plural,  and  the  suffixes  of  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  NEUTER  STEMS  IN  at  drop  t  in  the  Nominative  Singular  and  end  in  a : 
Nom.,  poema,  Geu.,poematis  ;  Stem,  poemat.    These  nouns  sometimes  have 
is  for  ibus  hi  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural :  poemafai  for  poematibuts. 

3.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  69,  78-84. 

59.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  A  GUTTURAL  :  O  OR  G. 

Rex,  M.,        Judex,  M.  &  F.,  Radix,  F.,        Dux,  M.  &F., 
king.  judge.  root.  leader. 


SINGULAR. 

Nom.  rSx 

judex 

radix 

dux 

Gen.    regis 

judicis 

radicis 

duels 

Dal.    regl 

judicl 

radicl 

duel 

Ace.    regem 

judicem 

radiceiu 

ducem 

Voc.    rex 

judex 

radix 

dux 

Abl.    rege 

judice 

radlce 

duce 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  reges 

jfi<lires 

radices 

duces 

Gen.    regum 

judicum 

radicum 

ii  in 

Dot.    regibus 

judicibus 

radicibus 

ducibus 

Ace.    reges 

judicCs 

radices 

du  (•<-•» 

Voc.    reges 

judicCs 

radices 

duces 

Abl.     re  gibus 

judicibus 

radicibus 

ducibus 

1.  STEMS  AND  OASE-SUFFIXES. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stenis  are  reg,judic,  rddic,  and  due  ;  judic  with  the  variable 
vowel,  i,  e  ;  see  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  are  those  given  in  57. 

3)  That  B  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  unites  with  c  or  </  of 
the  stem  and  forms  ./•  /  see  30. 

2.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  NOUNS  IN  x,  91-9& 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


6O.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  L,  M,  N,  OR  R. 


33 


361,  M., 

Consul,  M., 

Passer,  M., 

Pater,  MN 

sun. 

consul. 

sparrow. 

father. 

SINGULAR 

Nom.   s6l 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Gen.     soils 

consults 

passeris 

patris 

Dat.     soli 

consull 

passerl 

patil 

Ace.     solem 

consulem 

passerem 

patrem 

Foe.     sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Abl.     sdle 

consule 

passere 

patre 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   solfis  ' 

consults 

passeres 

patrCs 

Gen. 

consulum 

passemm 

patrum 

Dat.     solibus 

cOnsulibits 

passerlbns 

patribus 

Ace.          ••- 

consults 

passer^s 

patvCs 

Foe.     8616s 

cSnsulCs 

passerCs 

patrgs 

Abl.      s5libus 

cOnsulibus 

passeribus 

patribuw 

Pastor,  M., 

Le5,  M., 

VirgO,  F,, 

Carmen,  N., 

shepherd. 

lion. 

maiden. 

song. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.    pastor 

le§ 

virgS 

carmen 

Gen.     pftstOrls 

leonis 

yirginis 

carminis 

It'll.       pa-tori 

leOnl 

virginl 

carminl 

Ace.     pastorem 

leonem 

virginem 

carmen 

Foe.     pastor 

left 

virgo 

carmen 

Abl.      pitstOrc 

leoue 

virgine 

oarmin  e 

PLURAL. 

Nom.    past5rCs 

Ie0n£s 

virginCs 

carmina 

'!'n.     pastOrum 

IcolUllll 

virginum 

carininum 

l)"i.     pastorlbus 

ilm-. 

virginilniH 

carminibuN 

Ace.     pastures 

leOnCs 

virginfis 

carmina 

Foe.     pftstorCs 

IcOnCs 

virginCs 

carmina 

\>>L      past5rlbus 

leOnlbus 

virginibus 

carminibufe 

1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES.  —  In  the 

Paradigms  observe  — 

1)  That  the  stems 

are  t6l,  contul,  passer,  patrf  pd»t&r, 

le&n,  virgon,  and 

tarmen. 

>  Many  monosyllables  want  the  Gen.  Plur. ;  see  133,  6. 

a  TTiat  is,  the  stem  is  pair  when  followed  by  a  vowel ;  but  when  r  becomes  final,  ft 
•velopg  e  before  it,  and  patr  becomes  pater ;  see  29,  note. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


2)  That  virgb  (virgon)  has  the  variable  vowel,  o,  i,  and  carmen,  e,  i. 

8)  That  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  s,  the  usual  case-suffix 
for  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem 
pastor  shortens  o,  while  leon  and  virgon  drop  n ;  see  21,  2,  2),  and  36,  5,  3). 

2.  HIEMS,  the  only  stem  in  m,  takes  s  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative 
Singular.    Also  sanguis  (for  sanguins),  blood,  and  Salamls  (for  Salamlnv), 
Salamis,  which  drop  n  before  */  see  36,  3,  note  3. 

3.  PASSER,  PATER. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  passer,  but  those 
jn  ter,  and  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  pater  ;  see  77,  2. 

4.  LE6,  ViRo8. — Most  nouns  in  o  are  declined  like  led,  but  those  in  dc 
and  g^>,  with  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  -virgO  ;  see  72,  with  exceptions. 

5.  FOUR  STEMS  IN  or  change  o  to  u  ;  see  77,  4. 

6.  For  the  LOCATIVE  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION,  see  66,  4. 

7.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  72,  75-77. 


61.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  s. 


Flos,  M., 
flower. 


Jus,  N., 
right. 


Opus, 

work. 


Corpus,  N. 
body. 


Nom.    flSa 

jus 

Gen.     florig 

juris 

Dot.     florl 

jurl 

Ace.     florem 

jus 

Voc.     fl6s 

jus 

Abl     flore 

jure 

corpus 

corpori* 

corporl 

corpus 

corpus 

corpore 


Nom.   florCs 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Gen.     flomm 

inn 

opernm 

corporum 

Dot.     ndribus 

juribus 

operibus 

corporibus 

Ace.      florfts 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Voc.     florfis 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

All.      ilfii-ibus 

juribus 

operibus 

corporibus 

1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  &rv  fids,  jus,  opos*  and  corpos. 

2)  That  opus  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  u,  and  corpus,  o,  u. 

3)  That  s  of  the  stem  becomes  r  between  two  vowels :  flot,  floris  (foi 
fosis)  ;  see  31,  1. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-suffix ;  see  6O,  1,  8). 
*.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  79,  80,  82-84. 

1  Opoi>  occurs  In  early  Latin.  In  os,  from  the  Primary  Suffix  as  (32O),  o  was  weak- 
ened to  u  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Sing,  of  opus  and  corpus,  while  in  all  the  othei 
CMe-formt  it  was  weakened  *.o  <•  in  opun.  but  retained  unchanged  in  airjiut ,'  see  %2. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


CLASS    II.  — I    STEMS. 

62.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  I. — Nouns  in  is  and  §s,   not 
increasing  in  the  Genitive.1 

Tussis,  F.,     Turris,  F.,     Ignis,  M.,     Hostis,  M.  &  F.  ,  Nubes,2F., 


cough. 

tower.           fire.            enemy. 

cloud. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nubCs 

Gen.    tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubis 

Dal.    tussl 

turrl 

Ignl 

hostl 

nubl 

Ace.    tussim 

i  in   em 

Ignem 

hostent 

nubem 

!'"••.    tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nub€s 

Abl.     tussl 

turrl,  e 

Ignl,  e 

hoste 

nube 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  tussCs 

turrCs 

IgnCs 

hostCs 

nubfis 

Gen.    ilium 

turrium 

Ignium 

hostiunt 

nfibium 

Dot.     ni--il»us 

turribus 

_    ilm«. 

hostibus 

nubibus 

Ace.     t  ii  -•«•••.  Is 

turrCs,  Is 

Ign€s,  Is 

host€s,  Is 

nubCs,  Is 

Foe     tussfis 

turrCs 

IgnCs 

hostCs 

uub€s 

A/>/         i     il»n> 

turribus 

Iguibits 

hostibus 

nubibus 

I.  PARADIGMS. — Observe — 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi,  turn,  igni,  koM,  and  nuln.3 

2.  That  the  caee-endings,  including  the  characteristic  i,  which  disappears 
in  certain  cases,  are  as  follows : 

SINfil'LAK.  PLURAL. 

Nom.    is,  6s  6s 

Gen.     is 

Dot. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. 


i 


em 


s 
1,  e 


mm 

ibus 

CP,  IS 

68 

ibus 


1  That  Is,  having  as  many  syllables  In  the  Nora.  Sing,  as  in  the  Oen  Sing. 

5  Observe  (1)  that  tutsix,  turris,  Ignis,  and  hostix  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Ace. 
and  Abl.  Sing.,  twtsin  showing  tho  final  i  of  the  stem  in  both  those  cases,  turrif  some- 
times in  both,  ignis  sometimes  in  the  Abl.,  not  in  the  Aoc.,  ho&tt«  in  neither  (2)  that  nfibes 
differs  from  the  other  four  in  taking  ft  instead  of  i*  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. 

3  Nouns  in  IK.  Gen.  w,  are  best  treated  as  i-stetns,  although  some  of  them  were 
originally  «-stems  (61).  Thus,  originally  the  stem  of  n'~ib'~8  was  itself  nf/bfs,  but  t  was 
finally  treated  as  the  Nom.  suffix,  and  the  word  was  accordingly  declined  like  the  large 
class  of  t-nonns  mentioned  under  62,  V.  The  origin  of  i-stems  is  obscure.  A  few  cor- 
respond to  t-stems  in  the  cognate  tongues,  as  igniit,  nrix,  turrit ;  a  few  are  weakened 
from  a-stems  or  o-stems,  as  /orig,  a  door,  Or.  Ovpa,  imfter—imbrin,  rain-storm,  Or. 
o/u.j3pos;  some  are  formed  from  g-stems,  at  niilii't,  just  mentioned.  Upon  the  general 
subject  of  i-stems,  see  Koby,  pp.  186-149 ;  Schleicher,  pp.  884,  482,  458  ;  Oorssen.  I.  281, 
671,  788  seq. ;  II.  227 ;  Merguet,  pp.  36-40,  51,  67.  95  etc. 


36  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

IL  Like  Ttrssis  —  Ace.  im,  ABL.  I  —  are  declined  — 

1.  Buris,  plough-tail  ;  ravis,  hoarseness  ;  sitis,  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Singular:  (1)  Names  of  rivers  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 
the  Genitive:  Tiberis,  Hispalis  ;  see  582.    (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  Gen.  t«, 
and  some  others. 

III.  Like  TURRIS  —  Ace.  im,  em,  ABL.  I,  e  —  are  declined  — 

Clavis,  key  ;  febris,  fever  ;  messis,  harvest  ;  navis,  ship  ;  puppic,  stern  ; 
restis,  rope  ;  securis^  axe  ;  sementis,  sowing  ;  strigilis,  strigil. 

1.  Araris,  or  Arar  (for  Araris),1  the  Saone,  and  Liger  (for  Ligeris),*-  the 
Loire,  have  Ace.  im,  em,  Abl.  i,  e. 

IV.  Like  IGNIS  —  Ace.  em,  ABL.  I,  e  —  are  declined  — 

Amnis,  river  ;  anguis,  serpent  ;  avis,  bird  ;  bilis,  bile  ;  civis,  citizen  ; 
cldssis,  fleet  ;  collis,  hill  ;  fims,  end  ;  orbis,  circle  ;  postis,  post  ;  unguis,  nail, 
and  a  few  others. 

NOTE  1.  —  Adjectives  in  er  (for  ris)  and  those  in  is  have  the  Ablative  in  i  (153, 
154).  Accordingly,  when  such  adjectives  are  used  substantively,  the  2  is  generally  re- 
tained :  September,  Septembr'i,  September;  *  familiar  is,  familiar  i,  friend.  But  adjec- 
tives used  as  proper  names  have  e  :  Juvenalie,  Juvendle,  Juvenal. 

NOTE  2.—Iml>er  (for  imbris),  storm  ;  ve*per  (for  vtaperis),  evening,  and  a  few  others 
sometimes  have  the  Ablative  in  I. 

V.  Like  HOSTIS  —  Ace.  em,  ABL.  e  —  at'e  declined  all  nouns  in  is,  Gen. 
is,  not  provided  for  under  II.,  III.,  and  IV.8 

VL  Like  NUBES  are  declined  all  nouns  in  es,  Gen.  is.4 

63.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  I.  —  Neuters  in  e,  al,  and  ar. 
Mare,  sea.        Animal,  animal.         Calcar,  spwr. 


SINGULAR. 

Nom.  marc  animal  calcar  e 

Gen.  marls  anim&lis  calcarig  is 

Dot.  marl  animall  calcarl  I 

Ace.  mare  animal  calcar  e 

Voc.  mare  animal  calcar  e 

Abl.  marl*  animall  calcarl  I 


1  The  shortening  of  Araris  to  Arar  and  of  Ligeris  to  Lager  is  similar  to  the  short- 
«ning  ofpuerus  topuer ;  see  51,  2,  4) ;  36,  5,  2),  note. 

2  Names  of  months  are  adjectives  used  snbstantively.    Originally  mentis,  month,  was 
understood. 

3  Except  cam's  and  juvenis,  which  are  consonant-stems,  but  have  assumed  i  in  the 
Nom.  Sing.    In  the  plural  they  have  um  in  the  Gen  and  is  in  the  Ace.    Apis,  mentis. 
and  volvicris  often  have  um  for  ium  in  the  Gen. 

4  Except  struts  and  wites,  which  generally  have  um  in  Gen.  PI.,  and  tedet,  which  h« 
um  or  ium.     Compet,  Gen.  edis,  has  also  Ium. 

•  See  2  below. 

1  The  dash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending  is  sometimes  wanting. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


37 


PLURAL. 

Nom.    maria 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

Gen.     inailuiii 

animaliuin 

calcarinm 

ium 

Dat.     inai-ibiis* 

iiniinfilibus 

ralciiribu* 

ibus 

Ace.     maria 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

Voc.     maria 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

Abl.      liiiiribiis 

iinimfilibiis 

calcSrilms 

ibus 

1.  PARADIGMS. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i  is  changed  to  e  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  mare,  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  animal  (for 
animale)  and  calear  (for  calc&re) ;  see  24,  1,  note ;  27 ;  21,  2,  2). 

2j  That  the  case-endings  include  the  characteristic  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular: — (1)  Names  of  towns 
in  e ;  Praeneste. — (2)  Generally  rete,  net,  and  in  poetry  sometimes  mart. 

NOTE.— Neuters  In  ar,  with  a  short  in  the  Genitive,  are  consonant-stems :  nectar, 
nectarit,  nectar;  also  sal,  salt,  and/dr,  corn. 

64.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  I. — Nouns  in  a  and  x  generally 
preceded  by  a  consonant. 


Cligns,  M.  &  F. 
client. 

,  Urbs,  F., 
city. 

Arx,  P., 
citadel. 

Mus,1  M., 
mouse. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.    clit-im 

urbs 

arx3 

mils 

Gen.    clientis  * 

urbis 

arcis 

muris  4 

Dat.     clientl 

urbl 

arc! 

murl 

Ace.     client«m 

urbem 

arcem 

murem 

Voc.     '-lien* 

urbs 

arx 

IIIUS 

Abl.     cliente 

urbe 

arce 

mure 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   clients* 

urbSs 

areSs 

murSs 

Gen.    clientinm 

ium 

•      in  in 

mini  n  ill 

Dat.     clientilms 

il»us 

arcibus 

HIM  rib  us 

Arc.     clients*,  Is 

•«•-    I* 

arcSs,  Is 

inQrSs,  I* 

Voc.     clients* 

urbSs 

arcS* 

murSs 

Abl.     clientibui* 

ibus 

arcibus 

HIMI  ibus 

1  Cliins  Is  for  clientis,  wb»  for  urli*,  arx  lor  arcix,  and  mf/s  for  m"8i8  :  see  30,  6, 
i),  not*.  M>~t*.  originally  an  «-steiii.  Greek  /uC?,  became  an  j-stetn  in  Latin  by  assuming  i. 

8  The  vowel  e  is  here  short  before  nt,  but  long  before  «*  ,•  see  10.  note  2.  Indeed,  it 
seems  probable  that  nt  and  nd  shorten  a  preceding  vowel,  as  n*  lengthens  it.  See  Mul 
ler,  p.  27;  Ritschl,  Rhein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488. 

3  Xin  ane=c«.  c  belonging  to  the  stem,  and  n  being  the  Nom.  suffix. 

4  Muri*  It  for  »/  »«/'*  ;  «  changed  to  /•  between  two  row^la .  sea  31.  I 


38  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

1.  PARADIGMS.— Observe— 

1)  That  the  steins  are  cUenti,  tirbi,  am,  and  m&ri. 

2)  That  these  nouns  are  declined  in  the  singular  precisely  like  consonant 
stems,  and  in  the  plural  precisely  like  all  other  masculine  and  feminine 
t-stems.1 

2.  This  class  of  *-stems  includes — 

1)  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rs:*  cHens,  clientis,  client;  cokors,  cohortis, 
johort. 

2)  Monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant,3  and  a  few  in  i 
and  x  preceded  by  a  vowel : *  urbs,  city ;  arx,  citadel ;  iis,  strife ;  «oc, 
night. 

3)  Names  of  nations  in  as  and  Is,  or,  if  plural,  in  dies  and  Ites :  Arpinds, 
"?.    Arpln&tes,  an  Arpinatian,  the  Arpinates  ;    Samnis,  pi.  Samnltes,  the 
Samnites. 

4)  Optimates,  the  aristocracy ;  Penates,  the  household  gods,  and  occasion- 
ally other  nouns  in  as. 

NOTE  I.— Card,  flesh,  has  a  form  in  is,  carnis  (for  carinis),  from  which  are  formed 
ca/mi,  carnium,  etc. 

NOTE  2. — Pars,  port,  sometimes  has  purtiin  in  the  Accusative. 

Nora  8.—RU8,  country,  tors,  lot,  yupelfac,  furniture,  and  a  few  other  words  some- 
times have  the  Ablative  in  i. 

65.  SUMMARY  OF  I-STEMS. — To  l-sfcems  belong — 

1.  All  nouns  in  is  and  is  which  do  not  increase  in  the  Genitive  ; 
see  62.     Here  belong  also— 

1)  Names  of  months  in  her  (for  bris) :  September,  October,  etc. :  see  62,  N.  1. 

2)  The  following  nouns  in  her  and  ter  (for  bris  and  trie)  :  imber,  -storm ; 
linter,  boat;  utert  leathern  sack;  venter,  belly;  generally  also  Insuber,  an 
Insubrian. 

2.  Neuters  in  e,  al  (for  ale)  and  ar  (for  are)  ;  see  63  ;  also  63, 
2,  note. 

3.  Many  nouns  in  s  and  x— especially  (1)  nouns  in  ns  and  rs. 
and  (2)  monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant  ;  set 
64,  2. 

'  Nouns  thus  declined  are  most  conveniently  treated  as  «-nouns,  though  the  stem 
appears  to  end  in  a  consonant  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  /  in  the  Plur.  In  some  of  these  nouns 
the  stem  has  lost  its  final  i  in  the  Sing.,  while  in  others  it  ended  originally  in  a  con- 
*onant,  but  afterward  assumed  i  in  the  Plur.,  at  least  in  certain  cases ;  see  62,  I.,  foot- 
note. 

*  Some  of  these  often  have  um  in  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  parent, 
parent,  generally  has. 

*  Except  (ops)  opts  and  the  Greek  nouns,  grflps.  lynx,  sphinx. 

*  Namely,  fautr.  glis,  ll»,  mat,  nix,  noas,  on  (ossis),  v~tt,  generally  /raws  and  mti*. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


39 


66.  SPECIAL  PARADIGMS. 


StlS,  M.  &  F., 

Bos,  M.  & 

F.,       Nix,  P., 

Senex,  M., 

Vis,  F., 

awine. 

oar,  cow. 

*/wra. 

old  man. 

force. 

SINGULAR. 

Worn.    BUS 

bos' 

nix 

senex 

vis 

Gen.      suis 

bovis 

nivis 

senis 

vis2 

Dat.      sul 

bovl 

nivl 

senl 

vls 

Ace.      .-iiem 

bovem 

nivem 

senem 

vim 

Foe.      BUS 

boa 

nix 

senex 

vis 

.1W.      sue 

bove 

nive 

sene 

vl 

Norn. 
Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 
Voc. 

Abl. 


niv  iiiin 


nivitms 


nivibusi 


•niiiiii 


viribiis 


vlr€s 


vnibiis 


PLURAL. 

bov€s  nives  senCs 

(  bovum 

(  boii  in 

\  holm-  ' 

I  bubiis ' 

sues  bov€s 

8u6s  lni\-«*s  ni\  «'s  senCs 

suibns       (  bObus 
subus        /  bubus 

1.  The  STEMS  are  su ;  bov  ;  nig  (nix = nigs),  niv,  nivi  ;s  senec,  sen;  vl 
(sing.),  vlri  (for  vlsi,  plur.);4  see  31,  1. 

2.  Sus,  and  GRUS,  crane,  the  only  u  stems  in  this  declension,  are  de- 
clined alike,  except  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  where  grw  is 
regular:  gruibw. 

3.  JUPPITER,  Jupiter,  is  thus  declined:   Juppiter,  Jovis,  Jovl,  Jovern, 
Juppiter,  Jove.     STEMS.  Juppiter  and  Jov. 

4.  LOCATIVE. — Many  names  of  towns  have  a  Locative  Singular  in  I  or  e 
denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2).     Thus  : 

iVbm.  Karthago,  Carthage, 

Gen.  Karthaginis,  of  Carthage, 

Dat.  KarthaginI,  for  Carthage, 

Ace.  Karthaginem,  Carthage, 

Voc.  Karthago,  0  Carthage, 

Abl.  Karthagiue,  from  Carthage, 

Loc.  KarthaginI  or  e,       at  Carthage. 

1  Bd«  =  bovs,  bous ;  bfibus,  bubus  =  bovlbus,  boubus. 

*  The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing.— vis,  vl— are  rare. 

*  For  niyri,  from  which  nig  is  formed  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  v;  see  27,  3ft 
5,  note  1. 

4    Vi  is  formed  from  v'iti  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  i. 


Tlbur, 

Tibur, 

Tlburis, 

of  Tibur, 

Tlburl, 

for  Tibur, 

Tlbur, 

Tibur, 

Tlbur, 

0  Tibur, 

Tlbure, 

from  Tibur, 

Tlburl  or  c, 

at  Tibur. 

40  GREEK  NOUN& 

67.  CASE-SUFFIXES  AND  CASE-ENDINGS.' 

SINGULAR. 

CONSONANT  STEMS.  I-BTEMS. 

MAso.  AND  FBM.              Niter.  MABO.  AND  FBM.  NBUT. 

Nom.  s, — a                — *  is,  6s,  s  e, — s 

Gen.    is                      is  is  is 

Dot.     Ill  I 

'    Ace.     em  im,  em  e, — 

Voc.     s                    —  is,  6s,  B  e, — 

AU.     e                    e  I,e  1 

PLURAL. 

Nom,  6s  a  6s  is 

Gen.  urn  ma  ium  ium 

7>a#.  ibus  ibus  ibus  ibv» 

./'•(-.  6s  a  6s,  Is  ia 

Voc.  5s  a  6s  ia 

Abl.  ibus  ibus  ibus  ibus 

NOTE. — The  following  irregular  case-endings  occur :  * 
1.  £,  for  l ,  in  the  Dat.  Sing. : 4  aers  for  aerl. 
9.  His,  for  ?s,  in  the  Ace.  Plur. :  c'weis  for  cfols,  Gives. 
8.  For  GREEK  ENDINGS,  see  68. 

GREEK    NOUNS. 

68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a  few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.     The  following  are  examples  : 


Lampas,  F., 

Phryx,  M.  &  P., 

Herds,  M., 

torch. 

Phrygian. 

hero. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  lampas 

Phryx 

herOs 

Gen.  lampadis,  os 

Phrygis,  os 

lioroiw 

Dat.    lampadl,  i 

Phrygl,  i 

herd,  i 

Ace.    lampadem,  a 

Phrygem,  a 

heroem,  a 

Voc.   lampas 

Phryx 

heros 

Abl.    lampade 

Phryge 

h6r6e 

1  On  the  distinction  between  Case-Suffixes  and  Case-Endings,  see  46, 1,  and  47,  note  8. 

1  The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 

1  To  these  should  be  added  for  early  Latin— i)  us  and  en  in  the  Gen.  Sing. :  homtnu* 
=.  hominis;  salutes  =  salfttis;  2)  Id  and  e  in  the  Abl.  Sing. :  corwentionld,  =  corwen- 
Hone;  patre  =  patre ;  3)  7«  and  eis  in  the  Nom.  Plur.  of  i-nouns  :  Jlneis,  firiix  —fitiet. 
On  the  Cote- Endings  of  the  Third  Declension  in  early  Latin,  see  Wordsworth,  pp 
M-73;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  178-179. 

4  This  e  is  generally  long. 


SYNOPSIS  Of  THE  TURD    DECLENSION. 


41 


ffom.  lampadCs,  e» 

Gen.  lampadum 

Dat.  liimpudiluiw 

Ace.  lampades,  as 

I'oc.  lampad£s,  es 

Abl.  lampadilms 

Pericles,  MM 
Pericles. 

Nbm.  Pericles 
Gen.  Pencils,  I 
Dat.  Pencil,  i 


PLURAL. 

Phryges,  es 
Phrygnm 
Phrygiimp 
Phryges,  as 
Phryges,  eg 
Phrygilms 

Paris,  M.,      Did6,  p., 
Paris.  Dido. 

SINGULAR.1 

Paris  DldO 

Paridis,  os    Dldus,  onis 
ParidI,  i          DldO,  Onl,  5ni 


,  es 

hSrOum 


Aec.   Periclem,  ea,  en}..,  .'       DldO,  Gnem 

M'ariin,  in 


,  as 

heroes,  es 
hSroilms 

Orpheus,  M., 
Orpheus. 

Orpheus  * 
Orph-eos,  el,  I 
Orph-el,  ei,  I,  eO 

Orphea,  cum 


Voc.  PericlCs,  es,  6 
Abl.   Pericle 


Pan  DldO  Orpheu 

Paride  Dido,  One  Orphe» 

1.  Observe  that  these  PARADIGMS  fluctuate  in  certain  cases — (1)  between 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forms  :  lampadis,  o* ;  lam/padem^  a  ;  heroes,  as: — (2) 
between  different  declensions:  PERICLKS,  between  Dec.  I.,  Ikriclen,  Perirlf, 
Dec.  II.,  Pericl/i  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III.,  Periclis,  etc. :  ORPHEUS,  between  Dec. 
II.,  Orphei,  Orphed,  etc.,  and  Dec.  III.,  Orpheos,  etc. 

2.  NOUNS  IN  y»  have  Gen.  yos^  ys,  Ace.  ym,  yn  :  Othri/g,  OtJiryoft,  OtJirym, 
Othryn. 

3.  The  VOCATIVE  SINGULAR  drops  « — (1)  In  nouns  in  *«*,  y«,  and  in  proper 
names  in  d«,  Gen.  antin :  Atlas,  AtlA : — (2)  generally  in  nouns  in  w,  and 
sometimes  in  other  words :  Pari. 

4.  In  the  GENITIVE  PLURAL,  the  ending  dn  occurs  in  a  few  titles  of  books : 
JfetamorphftKfS  (title  of  a  poem),  Metamorpho*et>n . 

5.  In  the  DATIVE  AND  ABLATIVE  PLURAL  the  ending  «',  before  vowels  *»•», 
occurs  in  poetry :  Troaden,  Troarin. 

6.  A  few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  08  in  the  Singular  and  i  in  the  Plural :  WK-&W,  mefe,  song. 

SYNOPSIS   OF  THE  THIRD   DECLENSION. 

I.    NOUNS   ENDING   IN   A   VOWEL. 

69.  Nouns  in  a :  3  Genitive  in  atis :  Stem  in  at : 

poema,  poem,  poCmatis,  poemat. 


1  The  Plural  is  of  course  generally  wanting;  see  130,  2. 

3  Eu  ia  a  diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. ;  ei  sometimes  a  diphthong  in  the  Quo 
»ml  Dat. 

1  These  are  of  Greek  oririn 


42  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

70.  Nouns  in  e :  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i : 

mare,  sea,  maria,  mari. 

71 .  Nouns  in  I : l  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i : 

sinapl,  mustard,  sinapis,  sinapi. 

NOTE.— Many  nouns  in  I  are  indeclinable.    Compounds  of  meli  have  itit  in  the  Genl 

tivc :  oxymell,  ofymelitin,  oxymel. 

72.  Nouns  in  6  or  6 :  Genitive  in  onis  :  Stem  in  5n : 

Ie6,  lion,  leOnis,  leon. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in— 

1.  onis: — most  national  names:  Macedo,  Macedonis,  Macedonian. 

2.  inis  : s — Apollo  ;  homo,  man ;  nemo,  nobody  ;  turbo,  whirlwind ;  and 

nouns  in  do  and  go :  grandb,  grandinis,  hail ;  viryo, 
virginis,  maiden  ;  except — harpagb,  Onis  ;  ligo,  Onis  i 
praedo,  Onis,  also  comedo,  cUdo,  mango,  spado,  ftnedo,  ud$. 

3.  nis  : — caro,  carnis  (for  carinis  *),  flesh  ;  see  64,  2,  note  1. 

4.  enis: — Anio,  Anienis,  river  Anio;  Nerio,  Nerilnis. 
6.  us : — a  few  Greek  feminines :  Dido,  Dldus  ;  see  68. 

73.  Nouns  in  y  ! :  Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys) :  Stem  in  y : 

misy,  copperas,          misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 

IE.    NOUNS  ENDING   IN  A   MUTE   OB  LIQUID. 

74.  Nouns  in  c :  alec,  aUcis,  pickle ;  lac,  lactis*  milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 :  Genitive  in  lis :  Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  sun,  sOlis,  s6l. 

NOTE. — Fel,f»l!is,  gall;  md,  mtlllt,  honey ;  sal,  sails,  salt.    On  neuters  in  a',  see  63. 

76.  Nouns  in  n:  Genitive  in  nis :  Stem  in  n : 

paean,  paean,  paeanis,  paean. 

flumen,  stream,  fluminis,  flumen,  in. 

NOTK  1.— Nouns  in  en  have  the  variable  radical  vowel — e,  i;  see  60, 1,  2). 
NOTE  2.— There  are  a  few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  onis,  ontis.  St.  in  on.  ont ' 
afdon,  aedonis,  nightingale ;  Xenophon,  Xenophsmtis,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r :  Genitive  in  ris :  Stem  in  r : 

career,  prison,  careens,  career. 

1.  Nouns  in  ar,  ar :  (1)  fir,  G.  aris,  St.  or! :  Idr,  Idris,  house ;  (2)  par. 
paris,  pair ;  far,  f arris,  corn  ;  hepar,  tepatis,  liver.     For  ar,  G.  arts,  and  ar 
G  aris,  see  63. 

2.  Nouns  in  ter :  Gen.  in  tris :  pater,  patris,  father ;  except  later,  later  is. 
tile;  tier,itineris,w&y;  Juppittr,Jovis;  and  Greek  nouns:  crater,  crateris,  bowl 

1  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 

1  Stem  in  on,  in,  or  emi,  ini,  ni ;  see  60, 1,  2). 

*  Nouns  in  y  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 

*  The  only  nouns  in  c. 


SYNOPSIS   OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  43 

Nor*. — Imber  and  names  of  months  in  her  have  bria  in  the  Genitive ;  imber,  imbrit, 
shower;  September,  Septembris,  September;  see  62,  IV.,  notes  1  and  2. 

3.  Nouns  m  or :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  pastor,  pdstoris,  shepherd ;  but  a  few 
have  G.  oris,  St.  or :  arbor,  arboris,  tree ;  aequor,  sea ;  marmor,  marble. 
But  cor,  cordis,  heart. 

4.  Four  in  ur :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  ebur,  ivory  ;  femur,  thigh ;  jecur,  liver ; 
robur,  strength ;  but  femur  has  alsofeminis,  and  jecur,  jecinoris,  jecineri*, 
and  jocineria. 

78.  Nouns  in  ut :  Genitive  in  itis :  Stem  in  ut,  it : 

caput,  head,  capitis,  caput,  it. 

III.    NOUNS   ENDING    IN    S. 

79.  Nouns  in  as  :  Genitive  in  atis  :  Stem  in  at : 

aetas,  age,  aetatis,  aetat. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  aria: — mSs,  maris,  a  male; — stem,  mas,  mari;  see  31,  1. 

2.  asis  -. — vas,  vasis,  vessel.1 

3.  assis : — as,  assis,  an  as  (a  coin). 

4.  antia : — only  masculine  Greek  nouns :  adamas,  antis,  adamant. 

NOT*.— Anas,  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns  in  as  have  atis  :  anas,  anatts.  Vat, 
surety,  Areas,  Arcadian,  and  feminine  Greek  nouns  hi  as  hare  adit:  vas,  vadis, 
lampat,  lampadis? 

80.  Nouns  in  es  :  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i : 3 

nubes,  cloud,  nubis,  nubi. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1 .  edia : — hires,  heredis,  heir ;  merces,  reward. 

2.  edis  : — pes,  pedis,  foot,  and  its  compounds  :  compes,  edis,  a  fetter. 

3.  eria : — Cere*,  Cereris.4 

4.  etia : — quies,  rest,  with  compounds,  inquiSs,  requies,  and  a  few  Greek 

words:  lebes,  tapes. 

6.  etia  : — abies,  fir-tree ;  aries,  ram  ;  paries,  wall. 
NOT*. — Bet,  bttsit,  two-thirds ;  «««,  aerte,*  copper ;  praet,  praedit,  surety. 

81 .  Nouns  in  ea  :  Genitive  in  itis  :  Stem  in  et,  it : 

miles,  soldier,  militia,  mllet,  it. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  etia : — interpret,  interpreter  ;  seaett,  crop ;  teges,  covering. 

2.  idia : — obses,  hostage ;  praeses,  president ;  see  57,  2. 

1  Vat  is  the  only  stem  In  n  which  does  not  change  t  to  r  between  two  vowels;  tee 
61, 1,8). 

''  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ados  for  adit. 
*  But  see  64,  1. 
Bee  61, 1,  8). 


44  UrNOPMM   0*'  THE  TH1HD  DECLENSION. 

82.  Nouns  in  la :  Genitive  in  la  :  Stem  in  i : 

avis,  bird,  avis,  avi. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  eria : — cinis,  cineris,1  ashes ;  cucumis,  cucumber ;  pulvis,  dust ;  vomit, 

ploughshare. 

2.  idis  : — capis,  cup ;  cassis,  helmet ;  cuspis,  spear ;   lapis,  stone ;  pro- 

mulsis,  antepast,  and  a  few  Greek  *  words :  as  tyrannis, 
idis,  tyranny.     Sometimes  Ibis,  and  tigris. 

3.  inis : — pollis  or  pollen,  flour ;  sanguis,  blood. 

NOTE. — Gils,  gllris,  dormouse ;  Us,  litis,  strife ;  semis,  gemissis,  half  an  aa  ;  />!«, 
Dltis ;  Quir'is,  Quirltis ;  Sarnnis,  SamnUis. 

83.  Nouus  in  6s :  Genitive  in  oria :  Stem  in  5s  : 

mds,  custom,  mOris,  mos. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  6tis: — cos,  cotis,  whetstone;  dos,  dowry;  nepos,  grandson;  sacerdos, 

priest ;  and  a  few  Greek  words. 

2.  5dis : — cQslds,  custodis,  guardian ;  see  36,  2. 

3.  oia  : — a  few  masculine  Greek  nouns :  herds,  hero ;  Minds,  Tros. 
NOTE. — Arbos  or  arbor,  arboris,  tree ;  o»,  ossis,  bone ;  bos,  bovis,  ox ;  see  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  TIB,  Gen.  in  uria  or  utis :  stem  in  us  or  ut. 

1.  firis  : — crus,  leg;  jus,  right ;  jus,  soup  ;  mus,  mouse ;  pus,  pus  ;  riis, 

country ;  tus  (thus),  incense ;  tettus,  earth. 

2.  utis :  — juventus,  youth  ;   salus,  safety  ;   senectus,  old  age  ;   servitus, 

servitude ;  virtus,  virtue ;  see  36,  2. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  ndia: — incus,  anvil;  palm,  marsh;  subscug,  dovetail. 

2.  uie : — grus,  gruis,  crane ;  sus,  swine. 

3.  untis : — a  few  Greek  names  of  places  :   Trapezus,  untis. 

4.  odis  : — Greek  compounds  in  pus :  tripus,  tripodis,  tripod. 

NOTB.— Fraus,fraudi»,  fraud;  lau«,  laud-is,  praise;  see  64,  2,  2),  foot-note.    For 
Greek  nouns  in  evs,  see  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  ua :  Gen.  in  eris  or  oris  :  stem  in  os. 

1.  eris: — laius,  lateris,  side :  stem,  latos*     So  also:  acm,foedus,fnnus, 
genus,  glomus,  munus,  olus,  onus,  opus,  pondus,  rudus,  scelus,  sitlux,  tUcus, 
veUus,  Venus,  viscus,  vulnus. 

2.  oris : — corpus,  corporis,  body  :  stem,  corpos.*    So  also  decus,  dedecus, 


1  Stem  oinin,  ciner  for  cine*  with  variable  vowel  A  e ;  see  24, 1 ;  31, 1 ;  and  57,  2. 
1  Greek  nonns  sometimes  have  idol  or  even  io»  for  idix  ;  Salami*  baa  Salaminfo ; 
Simois,  Simofnti*. 

>  Bee  61, 1,  foot-note. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  45 

faeitau,  faenus,  frigus,  lepus,  lltus,  nemos,  pecttts,  pecus,  penus,  pignus,  ster- 
ms,  tempos,  tergus. 

NOT*.—  Pecut,  pecudis,  a  head  of  cattle;  Ligus,  Ligurit,  Ligurian  ;  see  31. 

86.  Nouns  in  ys : J        Genitive  in  yis,  yos,  ys  :         Stem  in  y : 

Othrys,  Othryos,  Othry. 

87.  Nouns  in  bs :  Genitive  in  bis  :  Stem  in  bi : 5 

urbs,  city,  urbis,  urbi.  < 

88.  Nouns  in  ms  :  Genitive  in  mis :  Stem  in  m : 

hiems,  winter,  hiemis,  hiem. 

89.  Nouns  in  eps :  Genitive  in  ipia  :  Stem  in  ep,  ip. 

prlnceps,  prince,  principis,  prlncep,  ip. 

NOTE.— But  aucepx,  aucupis,  fowler.    Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel 
unchanged;  merops,  meropis,  bee-eater,    ffryps,  griffin,  has  grfphis. 

90.  Nouns  in  s  after  1,  n,  or  r :        Gen.  in  tis  :        Stem  in  ti : 

puls,  broth,  pultis,  pulti. 

mens,  mind,  mentis,  menti.8 

ars,  art,  artis,  arti. 

Norn.— Frfmt,  frondis,  leaf;  giant,  glandis,  acorn ;  jiiffldnt,  juglandi*,  walnut; 
«ee64,  2. 

IV.    NOUNS  ENDING   IN   X. 

9 1 .  Nouns  in  Sx :  Genitive  in  acis :  Stem  in  ac  : 

pax,  peace,  pacis,  pac. 

Nor*.— Fax,  fads,  torch;  to  also  a  few  Greek  nouns.     Astyanaa,  acti«;  so  a  few 
Greek  names  of  men. 

92.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  ecis  or  egis :  Stem  in  Sc,  eg : 

1 .  ecis  : — flfez,  pickle ;  vervSx,  wether. 

2.  egis  : — lex,  law ;  rex,  king,  and  their  compounds. 

93.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  ids :  Stem  in  ic,  eo : 

jfldex,  judge,  judicis,  jfldie,  ec. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1 .  ecis  : — nex,  murder  ;  fenitsex,  mower ;  ( prex),  precis,  prayer. 

2.  egis  : — grey,,  flock ;  aquilcx,  water-inspector. 

3.  igis:—  remex,  rfmigii,  rower;  see  24,  1. 

NOTE.— Faex,  faefi*,  lees ;  seni-ar,  senis,  old  man  (66) ;  tupetlfa;  tupellectilit, 
furniture. 

94.  Nouns  in  Ix :         Genitive  in  Icis  :         Stem  in  Ic  : 

radix,  root,  radlcis,  radio. 

1  These  are  of  Greek  origin  ;  a  few  of  them  have  ydit;  cMamp»,  qMamydi*,  cloak. 

1  Dissyllables  have  the  stem  In  f>. 

1  Dissyllables  In  n«  have  the  stem  In  t. 


46  GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

95.  Nouns  in  ix :        Genitive  in  icis :        Stem  in  ic  : 

calix,  cup,  calicis,  calic. 

NOTE. — Nix,  nivis  (66),  snow;  strife,  strigis,  screech-owl;  a  few  Gallic  names  also 
have  the  Genitive  in  i gis  :  Dumnorix,  Orgetorix. 

96.  Nouns  in  5x  or  ox :  vox,  vdcis,  voice ;  nox,  noctis,  night. 

NOTE. — There  are  also  a  few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  ocis  or  ogis  :  Cappa- 
dox,  Cappadocis;  Allobrox,  Allobrogte. 

97.  Nouns  in  ux  :         Genitive  in  ucis  :        Stem  in  uo : 

dux,  leader,  ducis,  due. 

NOTE  1. — Lux,  lucis,  light;  Pollux,  Pollucis,  Pollux;  frux,friigi8,  fruit. 

NOTE  2. — Greek  nouns  in  yx  and  yx  are  variously  declined:  Eryx,  Erycis,'Eryx; 
bombyx,  botnbygis,  silkworm ;  Styx,  Stygis,  Styx ;  coccyx,  coccygis,  cuckoo ;  onyx, 
onychis,  onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  x  after  n  or  r :        Genitive  in  cis  :        Stem  in  ci : 

arx,  citadel,  arcis,  arci. 

NOTE  1. — Conjwnx  or  conjuae,  conjugis,  spouse. 

NOTE  2.— Most  nouns  in  x  preceded  by  n  are  of  Greek  origin  :  lynx,  Ityncit,  lynx ; 
phalanx,  phalangis,  phalanx. 

GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

99.  Nouns  in  the  third  declension  ending  in 

6,  or,  6s,  er,  and  in  es  and  es  increasing  in  the  Genitive,1 

are  masculine :  sermd,  discourse;  dolor,  pain;  mos,  custom; 
agger,  mound  ;  pes,  Genitive  pedis,  foot. 

1 00.  Nouns  in  0  are  masculine,  except  the  Feminines,  viz,  : 

1.  Nouns  in  6,  Gen.  inis,  except  cardb,  ordd,  turbo,  mase.,  cupldd  and 

margd,  masc.  or  fern. 

2.  Card,  flesh,  and  the  Greek  Argo,  echo,  echo. 

3.  Most  abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  id :  ratio,  reason ;  contio,  an 


101.  Nouns  in  OR  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminine: — arbor,  tree. 

2.  The  Neuters : — ador,  spelt ;  aequor,  sea ;  cor,  heart ;  marmor,  marble. 

1 02.  Nouns  in  OS  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — arbos,  tree;  cos,  whetstone ;  dos,  dowry  ;  eos,  dawn. 

2.  Tb.e  Neuter : — os,  mouth. 

NOTB. — 0»,  bone,  and  a  few  Greek  words  in  os  are  neuter:  chaos,  chaos. 

1 03.  Nouns  in  ER  are  masculine,  except — 

1  That  is,  having  more  syllables  in  the  Genitive  than  in  the  Nominative. 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION.  47 

1.  The  Feminine : — linter,  boat  (sometimes  masc.). 

2.  The  Neuters: — (1)  cadaver,  corpse;  iter,  way;  tuber,  tumor;  ubcr, 

udder ;  ver,  spring  ;  verber,  scourge ; — (2)  botanical  names  in  er, 
Gen.  eris :  acer,  maple-tree ;  papaver,  poppy. 

104.  Nouns  in  ES  and  ES  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  masculine, 

except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — compes,   fetter;   merces,    reward;   merges,   sheaf; 

quies,  rest  (with  its  compounds) ;  seges,  crop  ;  teges,  mat ;  some- 
times ales,  bird,  and  quadrupes,  quadruped. 

2.  The  Neuter : — aes,  copper. 

105.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  in  es  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive,  and 
in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant, 

are  feminine :  *  aetds,  age ;  ndvis,  ship  ;   chlamys,  cloak ; 
pax,  peace ;  nules,  cloud  ;  ur bs,  city. 

1 06.  Nouns  in  AS  and  AS  are  feminine,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines : — as,  an  as  (a  coin),  vas,  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in 

as,  Gen.  antis. 

2.  The  Neuters : — vas,  vessel,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  Gen.  atis. 

1 07.  Nouns  in  IS  and  YS  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  alls,  ollis,  cis,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis :  ndtalis,  birthday; 

Ignis,  fire ;  sanguis,  blood.     But  a  few  of  these  are  occasionally 
feminine :  canis,  amnis,  cinis,  finis,  anguis,  torquis. 

2.  Axis,  axle  ;   buris,   plough-tail  ;   callis,  path  ; l  ensis,  sword ;   lapis, 

stone ;  mlnsis,  month  ;  orbis,  circle ;  postis,  post ;  pulvis,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier ;  torris,  brand ;  vectis,  lever  ;  and  a  few  others. 
8.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys :   Othrys. 

1 08.  Nouns  in  X  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
1.  Greek  masculines:  corax,  raven;  thorax,  cuirass. 

1.  Nouns  in  ex  and  nmt ;  except  the  feminines :  faex, for/ex,  nex,  (prex) 
supellex. 

3.  Calix,  cup ;  fornix,  arch  ;  phoenix,  phoenix ;  tr&dux,  vine-layer,  and 
a  few  nouns  in  yx. 

4.  Sometimes :  calx,  heel ;  calx,  lime  ;  lynx,  lynx. 

109.  Nouns  in  ES  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  feminine,  except 
the  Masculines,  viz. : 


1  Nouns  whose  gender  is  determined  by  Signification  (42)  may  be  exceptions  to 
these  rules  for  gender  aa  determined  by  Ending*.     Callit  is  sometimes  j'eminin». 


48  FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

AAnades,  cimeter ;  sometimes  palumbSs,  dove ;  and  vepres,  thorn-bush. 
NOTE. — For  Greek  nouns  in  <>«,  see  111,  note. 

110.  Nouns  in  S  PRECEDED  BY  A  CONSONANT  are  feminine,  except  the 
Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Dens,  tooth;  fons,  fountain;  mons,  mountain  ;  pdns,  bridge  ;  gener- 

ally adeps,  fat,  and  rudens,  cable. 

2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  with  a  masc'ii- 

line  noun  understood :  oriens  (sol),  east ;  confluens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence ;  tridens  (raster),  trident ;  quadrans  (as),  quarter. 

8.   Chalybs,  steel ;  hydrops,  dropsy,  and  a  few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes :  forceps,  forceps  ;  serpens,  serpent ;  stirps,  stock.  Ani- 
mdns,  animal,  is  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter. 

111.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

a>  e>  i>  Y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ar,  ur,  us,  and  us 

are  neuter : '  poema,  poem ;  mare,  sea  ;  lac,  milk  ;  animal, 
animal ;  carmen,  song ;  caput,  head  ;  corpus,  body. 

NOTE. — A  few  Greek  nouns  in  ex  are  also  neuter :  cacoethes,  desire,  passion. 

112.  Nouns  in  L,  AR,  and  AR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
Muffil,  mullet;  sal,1  salt ;  sol,  sun;  lar,  hearth ;  solar,  trout. 

113.  Nouns  in  N  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines : — pecten,    comb  ;   ren,   kidney  ;   lien,   spleen  ;   and 

Greek  masculines  in  an,  en,  In,  5n :  paean,  paean ;  canon,  rule. 

2.  The   feminines : — aedon,  nightingale  ;   alcyon  (halcyon),  kingfisher ; 

Icon,  image ;  sindon,  muslin. 

114.  Nouns  in  UR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
Furfur,  bran ;  turtur,  turtle-dove ;  vultur,  vulture. 

115.  Nouns  in  US  and  US  are  neuter,  except — 

1.   The  Masculines : — lepus,  hare ;  mus,  mouse;  and  Greek  nouns  in  pus. 

3.  The  Feminines : — tellus,  earth ;  /raws,  fraud ;  laus,  praise ;  and  nouns 

in  us,  Gen.  utis  or  udis :  virtus,  virtue ;  palm,  marsh. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION  :  U  NOUNS. 

116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in 

us — masculine;  u — neuter. 
They  are  declined  as  follows  : 

1  See  foot-note,  page  47.    Sal  is  sometimes  neuter  in  the  singular. 


FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


49 


Frfictus,  fruit. 


Nom.  fructus 
Gen.    fructfts 

f  ructiil,  tt l 
fructum 
fructus 
frQctft 


Dai. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl 


Nom.  frQctfts 
Gen.    frQctitum 
Dot.    friictibus 
Ace.     fructus 
Voc.     fructus 
Abl.    fructibus 


Cornu,  horn. 

SINGULAR. 

CASE-ENDING«. 

cornn 

us 

a 

cornus 

Os 

us 

cornu 

ui,  a1 

a 

cornu 

um 

a 

U 

us 

Q 

cornu 

u 

u 

PLURAL. 

cornua, 

us 

ua 

!       II  11  III 

uum 

UUl 

cornibus 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibu 

cornua, 

us 

ua 

cornua 

us 

ua 

cornibus 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibu 

ibus  (ubua) 

ua 

ua 

ibus  (ubus) 


1.  The  STEM  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  ends  in  u  :  fructu,  cornu. 

2.  The  CASE-ENDINGS  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  u,  weakened 
to  i  in  ibus,  but  retained  in  ubtts  ;  see  22. 

117.  The  following  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS  occur  :  8 

1.  Ubus  for  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  — 

1)  Regularly  in  acus,  needle;  arcvs,  bow;  and  tribus,  tribe. 

2)  Often  in  artusf  joint;  lacus,  lake;  partus,  birth;  portus,  harbor; 
z,  cave  ;  and  verut  spit. 

3)  Occasionally  in  a  few  other  words,  as  genu,  knee  ;  tonitrvs,  thunder,  etc. 

2.  Uis,  the  uncontracted  form  for  fla,  in  the  Genitive:  fructuis  for 


3.  Uos,  an  old  form*  of  the  Genitive  ending:  sentituos*  of  the  senate. 
118.  Nouns  in  us  are  masculine,  those  in  u  are  neuter,  but  the  fol- 
lowing in  us  are— 

1  Thus  ul  Is  contracted  Into  ft  :  frfictu^  frfictfi. 

3  To  these  should  be  added  the  rare  endings  iid  for  fi  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  itue  for  iis  in 
the  Gen.  Sing.,  and  ui'is  for  fit  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  PI.  See  Wordsworth,  pp.  60-62 

3  Generally  plural,  Hmb». 

*  It  has  been  already  mentioned  (47,  note  1)  that  the  five  declensions  are  only  five 
varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection.  The  close  relationship  between  the  third 
declension  and  the  fourth  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  declension  atfructug,  a  w-noun 
of  the  fourth,  with  that  of  gru*  (66,  2),  a  w-nuun  of  the  third.  In  fact,  if  the  old  Geni- 
tive ending  uit  had  not  been  contracted  into  fit,  there  would  have  been  no  fourth  de- 
clension whatever.  All  M-nouns  would  have  belonged  to  the  third  declension. 

s  Compare  the  Greek  Genitive  in  vo«  :  t^0vc,  i\9vot,  fish. 

'  This  was  first  weakened  to  sem'ttvie  (22),  and  then  contracted  to  tendtiis  (23,  2X 
the  classical  form. 
5 


50  FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

FMCININE  BY  EXCEPTION : — (1)  acm,  needle;  coins,  distaff;  domtm,  house , 
manwi,  hand;  porticus,  portico;  tribus,  tribe; — (2)  Tdus,  Ides; 
Quinqudtrus,  feast  of  Minerva ;  generally  penus,  store,  when  oi 
this  declension  ;  rarely  spents,  den  ; — (3)  see  42,  II. 

NOTB. — The  only  neuter  nouns  in  common  use  are  cornii,  genft,  and  r  «r«.1 

119.  SECOND  AND  FOURTH  DECLENSIONS. — Some  nouns  are  partly  of 
the  fourth  declension  and  partly  of  the  second. 

1.  Domus,  F.,  house,  has  a  Locative  form  down,  at  home,  and  is  other- 
wise declined  as  follows  :  * 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Norn,,   domus  domus 

Gen.    domus  domuum,  domOrum 

Dot.     domul  (donao)  domibus 

Ace.     domum  domos,  domus 

Voc.     domus  domus 

Abl.     domo  (domfl)  domibus 

2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  us,  as  cupres8U8,ficu8,  laurus,  plrvtu,  though 
generally  of  Decl.  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth  which  end  in 
w*,  «s,  and  u :  N.  lauru*,  G.  lavr-us,  D.  lauro,  A.  laurum,  V.  laurus,  A.  la/tru, 
etc.     So  also  colus,  distaff. 

3.  A  few  nouns,  especially  senatus,  senate,  and  tumultus,  tumult,  though 
regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  Genitive  ending  i  of  the  second  ; 
teiidti,  tumultl. 

4.  Quercus,  oak,  regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  has  quercorum  in  the  Gen.  PJur. 

FIFTH   DECLENSION:   E   NOUNS. 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end  in  ea— feminine, 
and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Dies, 

day. 

Res,  thing. 

SINGULAR. 

CABK-KMUXOB. 

Nom. 

di€s 

r€s 

Ss 

Gen. 

«'l 

or  die 

r€I  or  re 

&,  s 

Dot. 

«'l 

or  die 

rel  or  re 

el,  6 

Ace. 

diem 

rem 

em 

Voc. 

dies 

res 

S3 

Abl 

die 

re 

g 

1  But  neuter  forms  occur  In  certain  eases  of  other  words.  Thus,  Dat.  pecuJ,  AW 
pecfi.  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  PI.  pecua,  from  obsolete  pecft,  cattle ;  also  artua  fron 
zrtut ;  OHfnia  from  obsolete  oi>#&,  bone ;  ttpfcua  from  specus. 

9  Combining  forms  of  the  second  declension  with  those  of  the  fo\irth. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION. 


Nom.  dies  res  es 

Gen.    ilieruui  •  «~-rinii  erum 

Dat.     diebus  rebus  ebus 

Ace.     dies  res  es 

Foe.     dies  res  6s 

All.     diebus  rebus  ebus 


1.  The  STEM  of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ends  in  e  :  die,  re.* 

2.  The  CASK-ENDINGS  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  e,  which  ap- 
pears in  all  the  cases.     It  is  shortened  (1)  generally  in  the  ending  el,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant,  and  (2)  regularly  in  the  ending  em. 

NOTE.— Traces  of  a  Locative  in  e  are  preserved  in  certain  phrases  found  in  early 
Latin,  as  die  septimj,  on  the  seventh  day ;  die  crdstini ,  on  the  morrow;  die' proseimi, 
on  the  next  day.  Cotidie,  hodie,  pr idie,  and  the  like  are  doubtless  Locatives  in  origin. 

121.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS. — The  following  occur : 

1.  I  or  el  for  el  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat. :  acil  for  adel,  of  sharpness ; 
diet  for  diet ;  rei  for  rn  ;  pernidl  for  pemiciei,  of  destruction. 

2.  Es  in  the  Gen.  in  early  Latin :  dies,  of  a  day ;  rabies,  of  madness. 

122.  DEFECTIVE.— Nouns  of  this  declension  want  the  plural,  except2 — 

1.  Dies  and  res,  complete  in  all  their  parts. 

2.  Aden,  sharpness ;  effigies,  image  ;  fades,  face ;  series,  series ;  spedes,  ap- 
pearance ;  spet,*  hope,  used  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Plur. 

3.  Eluviet)  used  in  the  Sing,  and  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  y lades  in  the 
Sing,  and  in  the  Ace.  Plur. 

1 23.  GENDER. — Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine — > 

EXCEPT  dies,  day,  and  men/lies,  midday,  masculine,  though  dies  is  some 
times  feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  when  it  means  time. 

124.  GENERAL  TABLE  OF  GENDER. 

I.  Geuder  independent  of  ending.4  Common  to  all  de- 
clensions. 

1  Originally  most  «-stems  appear  to  have  been  either  /7-stemi  or  x  stems.  Thus:  1) 
Most  stems  in  if  are  modified  from  i<~i  :  n«iteri<~i,  miiterit,  Nom.  miiterii-s,  material; 
•ee  25,  1,  note,  with  foot-note  6.  In  this  class  of  words  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing,  are 
formed  from  the  stem  in  i<~t,  not  from  that  in  i*» :  mdUriae,  not  mi'iUrifl.  2)  Diet 
Jidftii  ptfbrx,  and  »pft  appear  to  have  been  x-stems,  modified  to  ^-sterns,  as  many 
t-stems  in  the  third  declension  were  modified  to  t-stems;  see  62,  I.,  1,  foot-note. 

J  A  few  plural  forms  in  addition  to  those  here  given  are  sometimes  cited,  but  seem 
not  to  occur  in  writers  of  the  classical  period. 

s  In  early  Latin  gpfren  occurs  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace.  Plur.,  formed  from  «pf#  treated 
AD  a  stem  in  x.  Thus:  tpe-s,  spiset,  spfrft  (31,  1). 

4  For  exceptions,  see  43. 


COMPOUND  NOUNS. 


Masculine. 

Names  of  MALES,  of 
RIVERS,  WINDS,  and 
MONTHS. 


Feminine. 

Names  of  FEMALES,  of 
COUNTRIES,  TOWNS,  ISL- 
ANDS, and  TREES. 


Neater. 

INDECLINABLE  NOUNS,'  IN- 
FINITIVES, and  CLAUSES 
used  as  Nvtms. 


II.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  ending.4 


Masculine, 
as,  es. 

er,  ir,  us,  os,  5s.      I 

6,  or,  5s,  er,  es  and  ; ; 
es  increasing  in  the 
Genitive. 


DECLENSION  I. 
Feminine. 
a,  e. 

DECLENSION  II. 

DECLENSION  III. 

9,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  es  and 

es  not  increasing  in  the 

Genitive,  s  preceded  by 

a  consonant. 

DECLENSION  IV. 

DECLENSION  V. 
es. 


Nenter. 


una,  on. 


a,  e,  I,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  5r 

ar,  ur,  us,  us. 


COMPOUND    NOUNS. 

125.  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declension. 
But — 

1.  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined : s  respublica  =  rSspub- 
lica,  republic,  the  public  thing ;  jusjurandum  =  jus  jurandum,  oath. 

2.  If  a  nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 
declined : 8  paterfamilias  =  pater  familids  (49, 1),  or  pater  famiUae,  the  father 
of  a  family. 

126.  PARADIGMS. 

SINGULAR. 


2?om.  respublica 
Gen.   relpflblicae 
Dot.    relpflblicae 
Ace.    rempublicam 
Voc,     respublica 
Abl.    republics 

jusjurandum 
jurisjurandl 
jurljurando 
jusjurandum 
jusjurandum 
jurejurando 

paterfamilias 
patrisfamilias 
patrlfamilias 
patremfamilias 
paterfamilias 
patrefamilias 

1  Except  names  of  persons. 

1  For  exceptions,  see  under  the  several  declensions. 

*  Words  thus  formed,  however,  are  not  compounds  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term 
see  34O,  I.,  note. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  53 

PLURAL. 

Norn,  rgspublicae  iurajaranda  patrgsfamilias 

Gen.   rerumpublicarum  patrumfamilifis 

Dot.    rebuspublicls  patribusfamilias 

Ace.    respublicas  jurajtiranda  patresfamilias 

Voc.    respublicae  iurajuranda  patresfamilias 

All.    rebuspublicls  patribusfamilias 

NOTE  1. — The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and  perhaps 

nore  correctly  written  separately  :  reapabtica;  paterfamilias  orfamiliae. 

NOTB  1.— Paterfamilias  sometimes  hM  famiUarum  in  the  plural :  patresfamili- 

irum. 

IRREGULAR    NOUNS. 

127.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

I.  INDECLINABLE  NOUNS  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS  want  certain  parts. 

III.  HETEROCLITES  (heteroclita1)  are  partly  of  one  declension  and  partly 
jf  another. 

IV.  HETEROGENEOUS  NOCNS  (heterogenea a)  are  partly  of  one  gender  and 
partly  of  another. 

I.  INDECLINABLE  NOUNS. 

1 28.  The  Latin  has  but  few  indeclinable  nouns.     The  following  are 
the  most  important : 

1.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  alpha,  fata,  etc. 

8.  Foreign  words :  -Jdcob^  Riberl ;  though  foreign  words  often  are  declined. 

n.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 

1 29.  Nouns  may  be  defective  in  Number,  in  Case,  or  in  both  Number 
and  Case. 

1 30.  PLURAL  WANTING. — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of  their  signi- 
fication want  the  plural :  Roma,  Rome ;  jQstitia,  justice ;  avrum,  gold ;  fa 
mes,  hunger ;  sanguis,  blood. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are: 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places :  OicerS,  KOma. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns :  fide*,  faith ;  justitia,  justice. 

8)  Names  of  materials :  am-urn,  gold  ;  ferrum,  iron. 

4)  A  few  others :  meridiss,  midday ;  specimen,  example ;  supellex,  furni- 
ture ;  ner,  spring ;  tetpera,  evening,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate  families,  dasset ;  names  ol 
materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ;  and  ab- 
stract nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  kintl*,  of  the  quality :  Stipiones,  the 
Scipios;  aera,  vessels  of  copper ;  avaritiae,  instances  of  avarice;  odia,  hatreds. 

8.  In  the  poets,  the  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

1  From  «r«pov,  another,  and  icAto-it,  inflection,  i.  o..  of  different  declensions. 
*  From  t Tt oo?.  another,  and  y*vot,  gender,  1.  o..  of  different  genders. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


131.  SINGULAR  WANTING. — Many  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1.  The  moat  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes :  majores,  forefathers 
posterl,  descendants ;  geminl,  twins ;  liberi,  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities:   Athenae,  Athens;    Thebae,   Thebes;  Delphi, 
Delphi. 

3)  Many  names  of  festivals  :  Bacchanalia,  Olympia,  Saturnalia. 

4)  Arma,  arms ;  divitiae,  riches  ;  exsequiae,  funeral  rites ;  exuviae,  spoils ; 
Idas,  Ides ;  indutiae,  truce ;  insidiae,  ambuscade  ;  manes,  shades  of  the  dead  ; 
mlnae,  threats ;  moenia,  walls ;  munia,  duties ;  nuptiae,  nuptials ;  reliquiae, 
remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a  class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be  de- 
noted by  unus  ex  with  the  plural:  unus  ex  Kberis,  one  of  the  children,  or  a  child. 

NOTE. — The  plural  in  names  of  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts  of  the 
city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  were  often  made  up  of  separate  villages.  So  in  the  names 
of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various  games  and  exercises  which  together  con- 
stituted the  festival. 

1 32.  PLURAL  WITH  CHANGE  OF  MEANING. — Some  nouns  have  one  sig 
nincation  in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.     Thus : 


SINGULAR. 

Aedes,  temple; 
Auxilium,  kelp  / 
Career,  prison,  barrier  / 
Castrum,  castle,  hvtf 
Comitium,  name  of  a  part  of  the 

Roman  forum  ; 
CSpia,  plenty,  force  ; 
Facultas,  ability  ; 
Finis,  end  / 
FortQna,  fortune; 
Gratia,  gratitude,  favor  ; 
Hortus,  garden  ; 
Impedlmentum,  hindrance; 
Littera,  letter  of  alphabet ; 

L  fid  us,  play,  sport } 

MOB,  custom  ; 

Natalis  (dies),  birth-day  ; 

Opera,  work,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

Rostrum,  beak  of  ship  ' 

Sal,  salt ; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  (1)  temples,  (2)  a  house.* 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

carceres,  barriers  of  a  race-course. 

castra,  camp. 

comitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  comitium. 

cOpiae,  (1)  stores,  (2)  troops. 

facilitates,  wealth,  means. 

fines,  borders,  territory. 

fortunae,  possessions,  wealth. 

gratiae,  thanks. 

hortT,  (I)  gardens,  (2)  pleasure-grounds. 

impedimenta,  (1)  hindrances,  (2)  baggage, 

litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epistle, 

writing,  letters,  literature. 
ludi,  (1)  plays,  (2)  public  spectacle. 
mOr6s,  manners,  character. 
natales,  pedigree,  parentage. 
operae,  workmen, 
partes,  (I)  parts,  (2)  a  party. 
rostra,  (1)  beaks,  (2)  the  rostra  or  tribunt 

in  Rome  (adorned  with  beaks). 
sales,  witty  sayings. 


1  Aedes  and  some  other  words  in  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural  two 
figniflcations,  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  singular  and  the  other  distinct  from  It 


HETEROCLITES.  55 

1 33.  DEFECTIVE  IN  CASE. — Some  nouns  are  defective  in  case : 

1.  In  the  Nora.,  Dat.,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  ,  opis, ,  opem, ,  opt, 

help ;  ,  view,1 ,  vicem, ,  vice,  change. 

2.  In  the  Nora.,  Gen.,  and  Voc.  Sing. : ,  precl,  precem, ,prece,  prayer. 

3.  In  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  ,  dapis,1  dapi,  dapem,  ,  dape, 

food ;  ,  frugis,  frugl,  frugem, ,fruge,  fruit. 

4.  In  the  Gen., Dat, and  Abl.  Plur.:  Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  Decl. ;  see  122. 
NOTE.— Many  neuters  are  also  defective  in  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. :  far,  fe/, 

mel,  pug,  rug,  tug,  etc.,  especially  Greek  neuters  in  o«,  which  want  these  cases  also  iu 
the  singular  :  epos,  melos ;  also  a  few  norms  of  Decl.  IV. :  metus,  situs,  etc. 

5.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. :  many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  monosylla- 
bles :  nex,  pax,  pix  ;  cor,  cos,  rds  ;  sal,  sol,  lux, 

1 34.  NUMBER  AND  CASE. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  number  and 
certain   cases   of  the   other.      The   following   forms   occur:  fors,  forte, 
chance ;  lues,  luem,  lue,  pestilence  ;  dicionis,  dicionl,  dicionem,  dicione,  sway. 
Fas,  right,  and  nefas,  wrong,  are  used  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Sing. ; 
Instar,  likeness,  nihil,  nothing,  and  opus,  need,  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace. ; 
secus,  sex,  in  the  Ace.  only.     Many  verbal  nouns  in  u  and  a  few  other 
words  have  only  the  Ablative  Singular :  jussu,  by  order ;  mandatu,  by  com- 
mand ;  rogatu,  by  request ;  sponte,  by  choice,  etc. 

III.  HETEROCLITES. 

135.  Of  DECLENSIONS  II.  and  IV.  are  a  few  nouns  in  its  ;  see  119. 

136.  Of  DECLENSIONS  II.  and  III.  are — 

1.  Jusjerum,  an  acre;  generally  of  the  second  Decl.  in  the  Sing.,  and  of 
the  third  in  the  Plur. :  jitgerum,  jugeri  ;  plural,  jugera,jugerum,ju(ieribus. 

2.  Vas,  a  vessel ;  of  the  third  Decl.  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in  the 
Plur. :  vas,  vans  ;  plural,  vdsa,  vdsorum. 

3.  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia :  Bacchanalia,  Saturnalia ;  which  are 
regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  sometimes  form  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  drum  of 
the  second.    Anclle,  a  shield,  and  a  few  other  words  have  the  same  peculiarity. 

137.  Of  DECLENSIONS  III.  and  V.  are— 

1.  Requite,  rest;  which  is  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  also  takes  the 
forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Fames,  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  except  in  the  Ablative, 
fame,  of  the  fifth  (not  fame,  of  the  third). 

138.  FORMS  IN  ia  AND  i§s. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Decl.  I.,  and  one  in  ies  of  Decl.  V. :  luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury ;  materia,  materies,  material. 

139.  FORMS  IN  us  AND  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have  one 
form  in  us  of  Decl.  IV.,  and  one  in  um  of  Decl.  II. :  cOnalus, 
attempt ;  evenlus,  evenJurn,  event. 

1  Defi-ctlve  also  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 


56  ADJECTIVES. 

140.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry :  juventus  (utis),  youth ;   poetic,  juventa  (ae) :   senecti'u 
(utis),  old   age ;    poetic,  senecta   (ae) :  paupertds   (atis),  poverty ;   poetic, 
pauperits  (61). 

IV.  HETBKOGENEOTTS  NOUNS. 

141.  MASCULINE  AND  NEUTER. — Some  masculines  take  in  the  plural  au 
tdditional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Jocus,  m.,  jest;  plural,  joci,  m.,joca,  n. 

Locus,  m.,  place;  plural,  loci,  m.,  topics,  loca,  n.,  places. 

142.  FEMININE  AND  NEUTER. — Some  feminities  take  in  the  pluial  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Carbasus,  f.,  linen;  plural,  carbasi,  f.,  carbasa,  n. 

Margarita,  f.,  pearl;  plural,  margarltae,  f.,  margarUa,  n. 

Ostrea,  f.,  oyster;  plural,  ostreae,  f.,  ostrea,  n. 

143.  NEUTER  AND  MASCULINE  OR  FEMININE. — Some  neuters  take  in  the 
plural  a  different  gender.     Thus : 

1.  Some  neuters  become  masculine  in  the  plural : 

Caelum,  n.,  heaven;  plural,  caeU,  m. 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  masculine  in  the  plural,  but  sometimes 
remain  neuter  : 

Frenum,  n.,  bridle ;  plural,  frenl,  m.,  frena,  n. 

Rostrum,  n.,  rake;  plural,  rastri,  m.,  rostra,  n. 

8.  Some  neuters  become  feminine  in  the  plural : 
Epulum,  n.,  feast;  plural,  epulae,  f. 

144.  FORMS  IN  us  AND  um. — Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  us  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter :  clipeus,  dipeum, 
shield ;  commentdrius,  commentarium,  commentary. 

145.  HETEROGENEOUS  HETEROCLITES. — Some  heteroclites  are  also  hete- 
rogeneous :  cOnatus  (us),  edn&tum  (I),  effort ;  menda  (ae),  mendum  (I),  fault. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

146.  THE  adjective  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  nouns  :  bonus,  good  ;  mdynus,  great. 

NOTE.— The  form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  In  part  upon  the  gender  of  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies :  I/onus  puer,  a  good  boy ;  bona  puella,  a  good  girl ;  bonum  tern- 
plum,  a  good  temple.  Thus,  in  the  Nom.  Sing.,  bonus  la  the  form  of  the  adjective  wnej| 
used  with  masculine  nouns,  bona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with  neuter. 


ADJECTIVES.  fif 

147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
Jie  third  declension. 


FIKST  AND  SECOND 

DECLENSIONS  :  A 

AND  O  STEMS. 

148.  Bonus,  good.1 

SINGULAR. 

MABO. 

FKM. 

Naur. 

Norn,  bonus 

bona 

botmm 

Gen.    bonl 

bonae 

bonl 

Dot.    bond 

bonae 

bond 

Ace.    bonnm 

bouam 

bonum 

Voc.    bone 

bona 

bunum 

Adi.     bond 

bonft 

bond 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Gen.    bouOnim 

bonarum 

bondrmn 

Dai.     bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

Ace.    bonds 

bonas 

bona 

Voc.    bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Abl.     bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

149.  Liber,  free* 

SINGULAR. 

MABO. 

FBM. 

NstTT. 

Nom.  liber 

llbera 

llberum 

Gen.    Uberl 

Hberae 

iTberl 

Dai.    liber* 

llberae 

llberft 

Ace.    llbernm 

Uberain 

llberum 

Voc.    liber 

llbera 

llberum 

Abl.    liber* 

llberA 

libcro 

PLURAL. 

JVbm.  liber! 

llberae 

llbera 

Gen.    llberorum 

llberarum 

llberdrum 

Dot.    llberls 

llberls 

llberls 

^4cc.     llberds 

UberftH 

llbera 

Voc.    Uberl 

llberae 

llbera 

.dW.     llberls 

Uberls 

llberls 

1  Boxes  i«  declined  In  the  Masc.  like««nrc«  of  Decl.  II.  (51),  in  the  Fern,  like  menm 
3f  Decl.  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Neut.  like  templum  of  Decl.  II.  (51).  The  stems  are  lone 
<n  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  bontl  in  the  Fern. 

*  LlBKB  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  piter  (51).  and  in  the  fern,  and  Neut.  like  ?>onva 


58 


150.  Aeger,  sick.1 

MABO. 

Nom  aeger 
Gen.  aegrl 
Dot.  aegro 
Ace.  •  aegrum 
Voc.  aeger 
Abl.  aegro 


Nom.  aegrl 
Gen.  orii  in 

Dat.    aegrls 
Ace.     aegros 
Voc.    aegrl 
Abl.    aegrls 


ADJECTIVES. 


SINGULAR. 
FEM. 
aegra 
aegrae        f 
aegrae 
aegram 
aegra 
aegrft 

PLURAL. 
aegrae 
ai'iri  am  in 

aegrls 
aegras 
aegrae 
aegrls 


If  BUT. 

ii  in 

aegrl 
aegro 
aegrum 
u  in 
aegro 

aegra 

OK II  III 

aegrls 
aegra 
aegra 
aegrls 


NOTE. — Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger,  but  the  following  ii 
er  and  ur  are  declined  like  liber  : 

1)  Asper,  rough;  lacer, torn;  miser,  wretched;  prosper,  prosperous;  tener, 
tender ;  but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  e,  and  dexter,  right,  sometimes  retains 
it :  dexter,  dextera,  or  dextra. 

2)  Satur,  sated  ;  »atur,  satura,  saturum. 

3)  Compounds  infer  and  ger :  mortifer,  deadly  ;  dliger,  winged. 

151.  IRREGULARITIES. — Nine  adjectives  have  in  the 
singular  ms 2  in  the  Genitive  and  I  in  the  Dative,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  : 


Alius,  another. 


Solus,  alone. 


SINGULAR. 

MASC.    , 

FEM 

NKUT. 

MABO. 

FEM. 

NKCT. 

Nom.  aliuss 

'    alia 

aliud  3 

solus 

sola 

solum 

Gen.    allus 

allus 

allus  4 

solius 

sollus 

solius 

Dot.    alii 

ali! 

alii 

soli 

soli 

soli 

Ace.     aliuin 

aliam 

aliud 

solum 

so  lain 

solum 

Voc. 

sole 

sola 

solum 

Abl.    aliO 

alia 

aliO 

solo 

sola 

solo 

1  AEGKB  is  declined  in  the  masculine  like  ager  (51),  and  in  the  feminine  and  neuter 
like  bonus. 

2  7 in  ?MS  is  often  shortened  by  the  poets;  regularly  so  in  altering  in  dactylic  vert* 
(6O9). 

8  Rarely  alis  and  alid.    The  eaine  stem  appears  in  ali-qitis  (19O,  2),  some  one; 
ali-ter,  otherwise. 

4  For  alitiiK  by  contraction.    Alttrius  often  supplies  the  place  otalitu 


ADJECTIVES.  59 


PLURAL. 

Norn,  alii 

uliae 

alia 

soli 

solae 

sola 

Gen.   aliOrum 

aliaruni 

aliorum 

solorum 

solarum 

sOloruin 

Dot.    ulils 

alils 

aliis 

soils 

soils 

soils 

./'••-.    alios 

alias 

alia 

solos 

solus 

sola 

Voc, 

soli 

solae 

sola 

Abl.    alils 

alils 

aliis 

soils 

soils 

soils 

1.  These  nine  adjectives  are :  alius,  a,  we/,  another ;  nullus,  a,  MOT,  no  one1, 
talus,  alone ;  totus^  whole ;  ullus,  any ;  unus,1  one ;  alter,  -tera,  -terum*  the 
other 3 ;  uter,  -tra,  -trum,4  which  (of  two) ;  neuter,  -tra,  -trumf  neither. 

NOTE  1. — The  regular  forms  occasionally  occur  ID  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  of  some  of  these 
adjectives. 

NOTB  2.— Like  uter  are  declined  its  compounds :  uterqite,  utervis,  uterlibet,  uter- 
cunqut.  In  atteruter  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  as  altering  utrlux ;  and 
sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  ulterutr'tus. 

THIRD  DECLENSION  :   CONSONANT   AND  I  STEMS. 

152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  Nominative  Singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have   two  forms — the  masculine  and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  one  form — the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THREE  ENDINGS  in  this  declension 
have  the  stem  in  i,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


/" 

SINGULAR. 

MABO. 
Nom.  acer* 

FKM. 
acris 

Nror. 
acre 

Cm.    acri« 

fieri  ft 

Scrl* 

Dal.     fieri 

acrl 

acrl 

Ace.    ficrem 

acrem 

acre 

Voc.    ficer 

acris 

acre 

Abl.     acrl 

fieri 

fieri 

1  Bee  declension,  175. 

8  Oen.  alterius,  Dat.  alter'i ;  otherwise  declined  like  1'ilitr  (149). 

3  Or  one  oftico,  the  one. 

4  Gen.  utrlus,  Dat.  utrl ;  otherwise  like  itfyer  (15O).     Xtuter  like  uter. 

*  ACER  is  declined  like  iynin  in  the  Masc.  and  Fern.,  and  like  marf  (03)  in  the  Nout, 
except  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sin?.,  Masc.,  and  in  the  Ahl.  Sing. 

•  These  forms  in  er  are  like  those  in  ernf  Decl.  II.  in  dropping  the  ending  in  the 
Worn,  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  developing  final  r  into  er:  I'irer  for  fieri* ,  gtein,  ilcri. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Tristior,  sadder.* 


PLURAL. 

MAM.  FKM.  Nmr». 

Norn.   acres  acres  iicria 

Gen.    acrium  acriuni  in  MI 

Dot.     aci-ibus  a  crib  us  acribus 

Ace.     acres,  Is  acres,  Is  acria 

Voc.    acrCs  acres  acria 

All.     acribus  acribus  acribus 

NOTE  1. — Like  ACER  are  declined : 

1)  Alacer,  lively;  campester,  level;  celeber,  famous;  ceter,1  swift;  equester,  eques 
trian;  paliister,  marshy;  pedester,  pedestrian;  puter,  putrid;  salriber,  healthful;  til 
tester,  woody ;  terr 'ester,  terrestrial ;  volucer,  winged. 

2)  Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months  :  October,  bris? 

NOTE  2.— In  the  poets  and  in  early  Latin  the  form  in  er,  as  deer,  is  sometimes  femi- 
nine, and  the  form  in  is,  as  acris,  Is  sometimes  masculine. 

154.  ADJECTIVES  OF  Two  ENDINGS  are  declined  as 
follows : 

Tristis,  sad.' 

SIN 

M.  AND  F.  N«UT. 

Nom.  trtstis  triste 

Gen.    trlstis  trlstis 

Dot.    trfstl  trtstl 

Ace.    trfstem  triste 

Voc.    trlstis  triste 

Abl    trtstl  trlstl 

PLt 

Nom.  trlstes  trfstia 

Gen.    trtstium  trlstinm 

Dot.    trtstibus  trtstibus 

Aec.    trlstes,  Is  trfstia 

Voc.    trlstes  trlstia 

Abl.    trtstibus  trtstibus 

Nox«  1.— Like  trlstior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  e,  sometimes  in  I,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a.  and  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  urn.  But 
complf/res,  several,  has  Gen.  Piur.  complurium;  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Plur.  Neut. 
oomplura  or  oomplfrria ;  see  Plfiz,  165. 

NOTB!. — In  poetry,  adjectives  In  is,  e,  sometimes  have  the  Abl.  Sing,  in  e:  odgno- 
mine  from  ot/ffn/'minit,  of  the  same  name. 

1  This  retains  «  in  declension  :  celer,  celeris,  celere;  and  has  um  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 
3  See  also  77,  2,  note. 

*  Tristit  and  trltte  are  declined  Bke  ticrit  and  acre  ;  the  stem  is  trlxti. 

*  TrltMorh  the  comparative  (16O)  ottrletit;  the  stem  was  originally  triad's,  but 
ft  hag  been  modified  to  trlstius  (61, 1)  and  trtstior  (31). 

'  Enclosed  endinpa  are  rare. 


M.  AND  F. 

NKVT. 

trlstior 

trtstius 

trlstioris 

trtstioris 

tristiorl 

trlstiOrl 

trtstiorem 

trtstius 

trlstior 

trfstius 

trtstiore  (I)  « 

trtstiore  (I) 

trtstiores 

trtstiora 

tiistioriim 

trtstiorum 

trtsti5ribns 

tiTstiurilms 

trtstiores  (Is) 

trtsti6ra 

trtstiores 

trtstiora 

trtstioribus 

tristioribuw 

ADJECTIVES, 


61 


155.  ADJECTIVES  OF  ONE  ENDING  generally  end  in  s  or 
x,  but  sometimes  in  I  or  r. 


156.  Audax,  audacious.1 


Felix,  happy.1 


M.  AWDF. 

NBCT. 

Atom.  audSx 

audax 

(?en.   audacis 

audacis 

Dot.    audacl 

audacl 

Ace.    audacem 

audax 

Fix?,    audax 

audax 

Abl.    audacl  (e) 

audacl  (e) 

M.  AND  F. 

feiix 

fellcis 
fellcl 

I'f'lTcem 
fellx 
fellcl  (e) 


N*ur. 
fellx 

tellcis 
fellcl 


felici  (e) 


Nom.  audacCs 
Gen.   audilcium 
i  IMIH 

audacfis  (Is) 
audacfis 

i  l»u- 


Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


fences 

fclicia 

fellcium 

fellciiim 

felicitous 

felicitous 

fences  (is) 

fdlTcCs 

fellcia 
felicia 

fCllribus 

felicitous 

157.  Amans,  loving. 


PrudSns,  prudent. 


SINGULAR. 


M.  AMD  F.                 Nmrr. 

M.  AND  F.                  NECT. 

Nom.  anians                   amftns 

prudens                 prudgns 

f  >'••».  amantis              amantis 

prudentis              prudentis  ' 

Dat.    amantl                 amantl 

prudentl                prudentl 

Ace.    amantem           amfins 

prudentem           prudens 

Voc.   amans                  am&ns 

prudens                 prudSns 

Abl.    am  ante  (I)          amante  (I) 

prQdentl  (e)          prudentl  (e) 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  amantCs              amantla. 

prudentCs             prudentia 

Gen.   amantinni         amantinm 

prudentium         prQdentinin 

l)'ii.    aroantitous        amantibus 

prudentitons        prQdentitoim 

Ace.    M  inn  nt  es  (Is)     amantla 

prQdentfis  (Is)     prudentia 

Voc.    amantCs             amantla 

prudentCs             prQdentia 

Abl.    amantitons        amantibus 

prudentitous        prudentibus 

NOTE.—  The  participle  amdns  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  priidfrwonly 

in  the  AM.  Ring.,  where  the  participle  usually 

has  the  ending  e,  and  the  adjective,  i. 

1  Observe  that  I  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  and  ia.  lum,  and  l»  In  the  Plur.,  are  the  regular 
oase-endings  for  i-stems ;  see  03  and  63. 

3  According  to  Ritschl,  Schmitz,  and  others,  the  e  which  is  long  in  prtld&nt  before  «J 
is  short  in  all  other  forms  of  the  word,  i.  e.,  before  nt.  In  the  same  manner  the  a  which 
Is  long  in  amans.  is  according  to  Ritschl  short  in  amantis,  ainanti,  etc. :  see  p.  87,  foot- 
note 2.  See  also  Sohmit?.,  pp.  8-26;  Kitsc-hl,  Bhein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  48S ;  MOller,  p.  2T. 


62  ADJECTIVES. 

Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  I.  A  few  adjectives  have  only  e  in  gen 
eral  use:— (1)  pauper,  paupere,  poor;  piibes,  piibere,  mature;— (2)  those  in  es,  G 
itis  or  idis :  tiles,  deses,  ^Ive*,  sdspes,  tuperstes ;  (3)  caelebt,  compos,  impos,  princep* 


158.  Vetus,  old. 


Memor,  mindful. 


SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F. 

NECT. 

M.  AND  F. 

NBUT. 

Nom. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

memoris 

memoris 

Dot. 

veterl 

veterl 

memorl 

memorl 

Ace. 

veterem 

vetus 

memorem 

memor 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

AU. 

vetere  (I) 

vetere  (I) 

memorl 

memorl 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

veteres 

vetera 

memorCs 

Gen. 

vetcruiii 

vetemm 

memorum 

Dot. 

il»n«. 

veterifous 

memorilms 

Ace. 

veteres  (Is, 

vetera 

memorCs  (Is) 

Voc. 

veteres 

vetera 

ruemores 

All. 

ilni- 

<       ilm> 

memoribus 

1.  NEUTER  PLURAL. — Many  adjectives  like  memor,  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neuter  Plural ;  all  others  have  the  ending  ia, 
as  felicia,  jjrtidentia,  except  fiber,  ubera,  fertile,  and  vetus,  vetera. 

2.  GENITIVE  PLURAL. — Most  adjectives  have  ium,  but  the  following 
have  urn : 

1)  Adjectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular  (157, 
note) :  pauper,  pauperum. 

2)  Those  with  the  Genitive  in  eris,  oris,  uris :   vetus,  vcterum,  old ; 
memor,  memorum,  mindful ;  cicur,  cicui'um,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps  :  anceps,  ancipitum,  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  urn :  inops  (ops, 
opum),  inopum,  helpless. 

IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 
159.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be — 

I.  INDECLINABLE  :  frugl,  frugal,  good ;  nequam,  worthless ;  mllle,  thou 
sand;  see  176. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  :  (ceterus)  cetera,  cetcrum,  the  other,  the  rest ;  (iQdicer) 
ludicra,  ludicrum,  sportive;  (sons)  sontis,  guilty;  (seminex)  seminecis,  half 
dead;  paucl,  ae,  a,  few,  used  only  in  the  Plural;  see  also  158,  1. 

III.  HETEROOLITES. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
««,  a,  um,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e  of  the 
third :  hilarus  and  hilaris,  joyful ;  exanimus  and  exanimis,  lifeless. 


COMPARISON,  63 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive 
degree,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative :  altus,  al- 
tior,  altissimus,  high,  higher,  highest.     These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of  com- 
parison : 

I.  TERMINATIONAL  COMPARISON" — by  endings. 

II.  ADVERBIAL  COMPARISON — by  adverbs. 

I.  TERMINATIONAI,  COMPARISON. 

1 62.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive  the  endings  : 

CoMPABATivE.  SUPERLATIVE. 

MASC.      FEM.     NEUT.  MASC.  FKM.  NKUT. 

ior       ior       ius  issimus       issima       issimum ' 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  high,  higher,  highest, 
levis,  lovior,  levissimus.  light,  lighter,  lightest. 
NOTB.— VOWEL  STEMS  lose  their  final  vowel:  alto,  altior,  alfissimw. 

163.  IHHEGULAR  SUPERLATIVES. — Many  adjectives  with  regu- 
lar comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.     Thus : 

1.  Those  in  er  add  rimua  to  this  ending: '  deer,  dcrior,  awrimux,  sharp 

NOTE.—  Vetw  has  veterrimus;  maturus,  both  maturrimut  and  mati/rinsim-us , 
darter,  dea-timus. 

2.  Six  in  ilia  add  limus  to  the  stem : ' 

facilis,          difficilis,  easy,  difficult, 

similis,         dissimilis,         like,  unlike, 

gracilis,        humilis,  slender,        low: 

facilix,  facilior,  fanllimun.  Imbecillw  has  imbecillimiis. 

8.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives : 

exterus,  exterior,          extremus   and  extimus,  outward, 

Inferus,  inferior,  Infimus       and  Imus,  lower, 

superus,          superior,          supremus  and  summus,  upper, 

posterus,         posterior,         postremus  and  postumus,  next. 

1  The  superlative  ending  is-gi/n  ux  is  probably  compounded  of  in,  from  #*»,  the  oripinal 
comparative  ending  (154,  foot-note  4),  and  nimwi  for  timux ;  ion-tinnis=  ifif-nimun  — 
ln-Ktmut.  After /and  r,  the  first  elemcmt  is  omitted,  and  *  assimilated  :  fad/ in,  fa <•«'/- 
ttimux,  facil-limu»;  riffr,  I'lcer-fit/iux,  ficfr-rimun ;  but  those  in  Hit  drop  the  Hna' 
»owel  of  the  §t«m.  See  Bopp,  §§  291-8K7;  Schleicher,  pp.  488-494;  Koby.  p.  Ixvi. 


64  COMPARISON. 

164.  Egenm,  pr&vidus,  and  compounds  in  die  us,  ficus,  and 
volus,  are  compared  with  the  endings  entior  and  entissimua,  as  if 
from  forms  in  ens: 

egenus,  egentior,  egentissimus,  needy, 

prOvidnn,  prdvidentior,          providentissimus,         prudent, 

maledicus,         maledicentior,        maledicentissimus,        slanderous, 
mQnificus,          munificentior,        munificentissimus,        liberal, 
benevolus,         beuevolentior,        benevolentissimus,        benevolent. 
NOTB.  —  Mirijtei*#imus  occurs  as  the  superlative  of  mirificw,  wonderful. 

165.  SPECIAL  IRREGULARITIES  OP  COMPARISON. 
bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good, 
mains,                 p8jor,                pessimus,  bad, 
magnus,               major,                maximufl,  ffreat, 
parvus,                minor,                minimus,  small, 
multus,                plQs,                  plurimufl,  much. 

NOTB  1.  —  Plus  is  neuter,  and  has  In  the  singular  only  Norn,  and  Ace.  plus,  and  Ge; 
plurit.  In  the  plural  it  has  Norn,  and  Ace.  pltiris  (m.  and  f.),  plura  (n.),  Gen.  plun 
um,  Dat  and  Abl.  plfiribus. 

NOTI  2.  —  /)?•»««,  frfigl,  and  neqiiam  are  thus  compared  : 

(  divitior,  UI  vitissiinus,  ) 

dives,  rich, 

I  ditior,  ditissimus,     i 

frugi,  frugulior,  frugaUssimus,  frugal, 

n^quaui,  n^quior,  nequissimus,  worthiest. 

166.  POSITIVE  WANTING. 

citerior,         citimus,  nearer,  prior,  primus,  former, 

dfiterior,        leterrimus,  worse,  propior,        prOximus,        nearer, 

interior,         intimus,  inner,         \      ulterior,        ultiinus,  farther. 

6cior,  Ocissimus,  swifter,      \ 

167.  COMPARATIVE  WANTING. 

1.  In  a  few  participles  used  adjectively:  meritus,  meritissimug,  deserving. 

2.  In  these  adjectives  : 


dlversua,      dlversissimus, 


falsissimus,  false, 

inclutub,        inclutissimus,        renowned, 


novus,      novissimus,       new, 
sacer,        sacerrimus,       sacred 
vetus,       veterrimus,       old. 


invltus,         invitissimus,         unwilling,    '. 

NOTE.— Many  participles  used  adjectively  are  compared  in  full :  am<in#,  amantioi 
amanttetiimus,  loving;  doclus,  doctior,  doctissimus,  instructed,  learned. 

168.  SUPERLATIVE  WANTING.  _ 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  ilia  and  bills  :  docilis,  docilior,  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  alia  and  Ilis :  capitalis,  capit&lior,  capital. 

3.  In  alacer,  alacrior,  active ;  caecus,  blind ;  diutwmts,  lasting ;  longln- 
quits,  distant ;  oplmits,  rich  ;  procllvis,  steep ;  proplnquus,  near  ;  salutaris, 
salutary,  and  a  few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thi*-  • 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES:  65 

adolfiscens,  adolfiscentior,  minimus  natu,1  young, 

juvenis,  junior,  minimus  natu,  young, 

senex,  senior,  maximus  natu,  old. 

169.  WITHOUT  TERMINATIONAL  COMPARISON. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  sUch 
as  denote  material,  possession,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time:  aureus. 
golden ;  paternus,  paternal ;  Kmndmis,  Roman ;  aettivus,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  by  a  vowel ;  idoneus,  suitable. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  dlis,  dris,  ilis,  ulus,  icus,  inus,  drus:  mortdlit> 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,  white;  claudus,  lame ;  ferus,  wild ;  lassut,  weary;  m/i/rus,  won- 
derful, and  a  few  others. 

II.  ADVERBIAL  COMPARISON. 

1 70.  Adjectives  which  want  the  terminational  comparison,  form  the 
comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  requires  it,  by  pre- 
fixing the  adverbs  magis,  more,  and  m&xime,  most,  to  the  positive :  arduus, 
magis  arduus,  maxime  arduus,  arduous. 

1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  different 
degrees  of  the  quality :  admodum,  ralde,  oppido,  very  ;  imprimis,  apprime,  in 
the  highest  degree.    Per  and  prae  in  composition  with  adjectives  have  the 
force  of  very :  perdifficilis,  very  difficult ;  praedarus,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  particles  are  also  sometimes  used — (1)  With  the  com- 
parative: etiam,  even,  multd,  longe,  much,  far:  etiam  diligentior,  even  more 
diligent;  multd  diligentior,  much  more  diligent — (2)  With  the  superlative: 
multd,  longe,  much,  by  far;  guam,  as  possible:  multd  or  longe  diligentissi- 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ;  quam  diligentissimus,  as  diligent  as  possible. 

NUMERALS. 

171.  Numerals  comprise  numeral  adjectives  and  numeral 
adverbs.* 

1 72.  Numeral  adjectives  comprise  three  principal  classes  •. 

1.  CARDINAL  NUMBERS  :  unus,  one  ;  duo,  two. 

2.  ORDINAL  NUMBERS:  primus,  first ;  secundus,  second. 

3.  DISTRIBUTIVES  :  singull,  one  by  one ;  blnl,  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

1 73.  To  these  may  be  added — 


1  Smallest  or  youngest  in  age.    Nfttu  ii  sometimes  omitted. 

*  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers,  mllle,  primus,  secundv*,  and  temel  (once),  four- 
teen words  in  all,  furnish  the  basis  of  the  Latin  numeral  system.  All  other  numerals  are 
'ormed  from  these  either  by  derivation  or  by  composition. 


06  NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES. 

1.  MULTIPLICATIVES,  adjectives  in  plex,  Gen.  plicis,  denoting  BO  many 
fold :  simplex,  single ;  duplex,  double ;  triplex,  threefold. 

2.  PROPORTIONALS,  declined  like  bonus,  and  denoting  so  many  times  as 
great :  duplus,  twice  as  great ;  triplus,  three  times  as  great. 

•174.  TABLE  OF  NUMEBAL  ADJECTIVES: 


CARDINALS. 

ORDINALS. 

DISTRIBUTIVES 

1.  onus,  una,  finuin 

primus,  first 

singuli,  one  b;i  oitt> 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,4  second 

binl,  two  by  cuo 

3.  tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

terni  (trlni) 

4.  quattuor 

quSrtus,  fourth 

quaternl 

5.  qulnque 

qulntus,  fifth 

qulnl 

6.  sex 

sextus 

sen! 

7.  septem 

septimua 

septfinl 

8.  octo 

octavus 

octoni 

9.  novera 

nOnus 

novenl 

10.  decem 

decimus 

deni 

11.  undecim 

undecimus 

Undenl 

12.  duodeciin 

duodecimus 

duodenl 

13.  tredecim* 

tertius  decimus  * 

ternl  denl 

14.  quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaternl  d6nl 

15.  qumdecim 

qulntus  decimus 

qulnl  denl 

16.  sedecim  or  sexdecim  ' 

sextus  decimus 

senl  denl 

17.  septendecim  ' 

Septimus  decimus 

septenl  denl 

18.  duodevlgintl" 

duodevlcesimus  8 

duodevlcenl 

19.  undevlginti» 

undevlc6simus  * 

undevlcenl 

20.  vlgintl 

vlcesimus  7 

vicenl 

g.  (  vlgintl  Onus 

vlcesimus  primus 

vlceni  singuli 

'  Onus  et  vigintl  * 

unus  et  vlcesimus  3 

aingull  et  vicenl 

22  (vlgintl  duo 

vlcesimus  secundus 

vlceni  binl 

(duo  et  vlgintl 

alter  et  vlcesimus 

binl  et  vlceni 

30.  trlginta 

tricesimus7 

trlcenl 

40.  quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragenl 

50.  qulnquaginta 

qulnqufigesimus 

qulnquagenl 

60.  sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexagenl 

70.  septuaginta 

ueptuagesimus 

septuagenl 

80.  octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogeni 

1  Sometimes  with  the  parts  separated  :  decem  et  tres  ;  decem  et  getr,  etc. 

;  Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction  ;  but  these  number* 
nay  be  expressed  by  addition :  decem  et  octo ;  decem  et  novem  or  decem  novem ;  so 
9S,  *9 ;  88,  89,  etc.,  either  by  subtraction  from  trlffintd,  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  rlijinCi. 

'  If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.  Mo  IB 
English  cardinals,  twenty-one,  one  and  twenty. 

*  Alter  is  often  used  for  secundu*. 

*  Decimus,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede :  deeimut  et  tertius  or  decimu»  tertius 

*  Sometime!  expressed  by  addition :  octdvut  decimun  and  no  nun  decimu*. 
1  *»ouie times  written  with  y :  viyesimus ;  trigf#imu*. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


67 


f  ARIUNAI.S. 

ORDLNAM. 

IjtSlBIBUTIVBS. 

90.  nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonagenl 

100.  centum 

centesimus 

centenl 

101  (  centum  unus 

centesimus  primus 

centenl  singull 

I  centum  et  unus  ' 

centesimus  et  primus 

centenl  et  singull 

200.  ducenti,  ae,  a 

ducentesimus 

ducenl 

800.  trecentl 

trecentesimus 

trecenl 

400.  quadringentl 

quadringentesimus 

quadringenl 

500.  qulngentl 

qulngentesimus 

qulngenl 

600.  sescentl* 

sescentesimus  " 

Beseem  • 

700.  septingentl 

septingentesimus 

septingenl 

800.  octingentl 

octingentesimus 

octingenl 

900.  nongentl 

nongentesimus 

nongenl 

1,000.  mllle 

mlllesimus 

singula  milia  * 

2,000.  duo  mllia  3 

bis  mlllesimus 

bina  milia 

100,000.  centum  milia 

centies  mlllesimus 

centena  milia 

1,000,000.  decies  centena 

decies  centies  mlllesi- 

decies centena  mi- 

mllia * 

mus 

lia 

1.  OBDINALS  with  pars,  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions :  tertia  pars,  a  third  part,  a  third ;  quarto,  pars,  a  fourth ; 
duae  tertiae,  two  thirds. 

NOTE.— Cardinal  numbers  with  parte*  are  used  in  fractions  when  the  denominator 
larger  than  the  numerator  by  one :  duae  partts,  two  thirds,  tret  partes,  three  fourths,  etc. 

2.  DISTRIBUTIVES  are  used — 

1)  To  show  the  number  of  objects  taken  at  a  time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adding  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece;  ternos  dendrios  acceperunt,  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.     Hence — 

2)  To  express  Multiplication :  decies  centena  mllia,  ten  times  a  hundred 
thousand,  a  million. 

3)  Instead  of  Cardinals,  with  nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in  sense  ? 
bina  castra,  two  camps.     Here  for  singull  and  ternl,  unl  and  trlnl  are  used  • 
unae  titterae,  one  letter ;  trinae  lUterae,  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  of  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs:  bini  scyphl,  &  pair  of  goblets; 
and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals :  bina  ftastilia,  two  spears. 

3.  Poets  use  numeral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compounding  numbers- 
bi-s  sex,  for  duodecim  ;  bis  septern,  for  quattuordecim. 

4.  Sescentl  and  mllle  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  used  in  English. 

1  In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds,  etc.. 
»s  in  English;  but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between  the  »wo 
highest  denominations  :  mHle  centum  vlgintl  or  mllle.  et  centum  vlgintl,  1120. 

1  Often  incorrectly  written  nexcentl,  nea-centesimtt«,  and  seoscinl. 

3  Often  written  ml/lid.    For  duo  inilia,  bina  mtlia  or  bit  mille  is  sometimes  used. 

4  Literally  -'ten  times  a  hundred  thousand";  the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 
desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centena  mllia:  centifs  cen- 
tina  milia,  10,000.000 ;  sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  miltii  is  understood, 
and  the  adverb  only  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  centum  mtlia  is  used. 


68  DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 
1 75.  Unus,  Duo,  and  Tres  are  declined  as  follows : 


SINGULAR. 

Unus,  on*.               pLURAL 

Norn. 

unus 

una 

unum 

unl 

unae 

una 

Gen. 

unlus 

umus 

unlus 

QnOrum 

unarum 

unOrun 

Dot. 

urn 

fun 

unl 

Qnls 

unls 

unls 

Ace. 

unum 

imam 

unum 

QnOs 

UllilS 

una 

Voc. 

une 

una 

unum 

unl 

unae 

una 

Abl. 

unu 

una 

unfl 

unls 

unls 

unls 

Duo,  two. 

Tres,  three. 

Norn. 

duo 

duae 

duo1 

trSs,  m. 

and  /. 

tria,  n. 

Gen. 

duOrum 

duarum 

du5rum  * 

trium 

trium 

Dot. 

duSbus 

duabus 

duObus 

tribus 

tribus 

Ace. 

duos,  duo 

duas 

duo 

trSs,  trts 

tria 

Voe. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

trSs 

tria 

Abl. 

du5bus 

duabus 

duObus 

tribus 

tribus 

NOTE  1. — The  plural  of  unus  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun  :  unl 
Ub-ii,  the  Ubii  alone  ;  but  in  the  sense  of  one,  it  is  used  only  with  nouns  plural  it  form, 
but  singular  in  sense :  nna  castra,  one  camp;  unae  litterae,  one  letter. 

NOTE  2.— Like  duo  is  declined  ambo,  both. 

NOTE  8. — MuW,  many,  and  pliiriml,  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and  as 
such  generally  want  the  singular.  But  in  the  poets  the  singular  occurs  in  the  sense  oi 
many  a  :  nnilta  hoxtia,  many  a  victim. 

1 76.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

1 77.  Hundreds  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus :  ducentl,  ae,  a. 

1 78.  Mlttf  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable ;  as  a  substantive  it  is  used 
in  the  singular  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative,3  but  in  the  plural  it  is 
declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) :  mllia,4  mllium,  mllibus. 

NOTE. — With  the  substantive  mllle,  mllia,  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is 
generally  in  the  Genitive:  rn'iUt  fiominum,  a  thousand  men  (of  men);  but  if  a  declined 
numeral  intervenes  it  takes  the  case  of  that  numeral:  tria  mllia  trecenti  rn'ilitts,  three 
thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 

1 79.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus,  and  distributives  like  the  plural 
of  bonus,  but  the  latter  often  have  urn  instead  of  drum  in  the  Genitive : 
blnum  for  binorum. 

1  In  the  ending  o  In  duo  and  ambo  (1 75,  note  '!),  we  have  a  remnant  of  the  dual  num- 
ber which  has  otherwise  disappeared  from  the  Latin,  though  preserved  in  Greek  and  San- 
skrit. Compare  the  Sanskrit  dta,  the  Greek  4uo,  the  Latin  duo,  and  the  English  two. 

*  Instead  of  diwrum  and  dw'irum,  duum  is  sometimes  used. 
'  Rarely  in  other  cases  in  connection  with  mllium  or  mllibua. 

*  Generally  written  with  one  /  .•  mllia,  but  sometimes  with  two :  miliia. 


NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


69 


180.  NUMEKAL  SYMBOLS: 


AKABIO. 

ROMAN.  !  ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

1. 

I.              12. 

XII. 

50. 

L. 

2. 

II.             13. 

xm. 

60. 

LX. 

3. 

III.             14. 

XIV. 

70. 

LXX. 

4. 

IV.             15. 

XV. 

80. 

LXXX. 

5. 

V. 

16. 

XVI. 

90. 

XC. 

6. 

VI. 

17. 

XVII. 

100. 

C. 

7. 

VII. 

18. 

XVIII. 

200. 

cc. 

8, 

VIII. 

19. 

XIX. 

500. 

10,  or  D. 

9. 

IX. 

20. 

XX. 

600. 

DC. 

10. 

X. 

30. 

XXX. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M.i 

11. 

XL 

40. 

XL.         10,000. 

CCIOO. 

1.  LATIN  NUMERAL  SYMBOLS  are  combinations  of:  1  =  1;  V  =  5;  X  =  10' 
L  =  50  ;  C  =  100  ;  10  or  D  =  500  ;  CIO  or  M  =  1,000." 

2.  IK  THE  COMBINATION  OF  THESE  SYMBOLS,  except  10,  observe  — 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a  symbol  doubles  the  value  :  II  =  2  ;  XX  =  20. 

2;  That  any  symbol  standing  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value  :  V  =  5  ; 
IV  =  5-  1  =  4;  VI  =  5  +  1  =  6. 

3.  IN  THE  COMBINATION  OF  10  observe  — 

1)  That  each  0  (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold  :  10  =  500  ; 
100  =  500  x  10  =  5,000  ;  1000  =  5,000  x  10  =  60,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C  the  same  number  ol 
times  before  I  as  O  stands  after  it  :  10  =  500  ;  CIO  =  500  x  2  =  1,000  ;  100  = 
5,000  ;  CCIOO  =  5,000  x  2  =  10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value  :  10  =  500  ; 
100  =  600;  IOCC  =  700. 

NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  adverbs  : 


1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  three  times 

4.  quater 


5.  qulnquies8 

6.  sexiCs 

7.  septies 

8.  octifis 


9.  novies 

10.  decies 

11.  Ondecies 

12.  duodecies 


1  Thousands  are  sometimes  denoted  by  a  line  over  the  symbol :  II  =  2,000;  V  =  5,000 
a  The  origin  of  these  symbols  is  uncertain.  According  to  Mommsen,  /  is  the  out- 
stretched finger;  F,  the  open  hand  ;  A",  the  two  hands  crossed  ;  L,  the  open  hand  like  K 
but  in  a  different  position ;  CIO  is  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  *,  not  other- 
wise used  by  the  Romans,  afterward  changed  to  .)/,•  ID,  afterward  changed  to  I),  is  a 
part  of  CIO  ;  Cis  also  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  0,  but  it  may  be  the 
initial  letter  of  centum,  as  Jf  may  be  that  otm'ille. 

8  In  adverbs  formed  from  cardinal  numbers,  if*  is  the  approved  ending,  though  ient 
often  occurs.  In  adverbs  from  indefinite  numeral  adjectives  HIM  is  the  approved  ending 
totient  (from  tot),  so  often:  quotitii*  (from  quot).  how  often.  See  Braiubach,  p  14. 


PRONOUNS. 


800. 

SCO.  trecentifia 
400.  quadringentie 
500.  qulngenties 
600.  sescenties 
700.  septingenties 
800.  octingenties 
inOningenties 

O\J\J,  \ 

mongenties 
1,000.  millies » 
2,000.  bis  mtllies 
100,000.  centies  mlllies 
1,000,000.  millies  millies 

NOTE  1.— In  compounds  of  units  and  tens,  the  unit  with  et  generally  precedes,  as  in 
the  table :  M*  et  vltifs ;  the  tens,  however,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede. 

NOTE  2. — Another  class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  o  is  formed  from  the  ordinal! : 
erifl»u»»,  priaH\  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place;  Ui-tinm,  tertio,  for  the  third  time 


(teribe^fe 

90.  vlciea 

'Itredeciea 

21.  semel  et  vicics 

iquaterdecies 

82.  bis  et  vlcies 

(  quattuordeciCs 

80.  tncies 

(qulnquiesdecies 

40.  quadragiea 

'(qnlndeeies 

50.  qulnquagies 

(sexicsdecies 

60.  sexagius 

1  sedecies 

70.  septuagies 

17.  septiesdecies 

80.  octftgies 

(duodevlcies 

90.  nOnagies 

'(  octiesdecies 

100.  centies 

._  (flndevicies 

101.  centies  semel 

1  9  < 
'1  uoviesdecies 

102.  centies  bis 

CHAPTER    III 
PRONOUNS. 

182.  IN  construction,  Pronouns*  are  used  either  aa  Sub 
stantives:  ego,  I,  tu,  thou;  or  as  Adjectives:  meus,  my, 
tuus,  your. 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  • 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  :  tu,  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns :  meus,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns :  hw,  this. 

4.  Relative  Pronouns  :  qul,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  quis,  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  :  aliquis,  some  one. 

I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

184.  Personal  Pronouns,'  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 

1  Mitt&t  is  often  used  indefinitely  like  the  English  a  thousand  times. 

*  But  in  their  signification  and  use,  Pronouns  differ  widely  from  ordinary  substantive! 
Mtd  adjectives,  as  they  never  name  any  object,  action,  or  quality,  but  simply  point  out 
IU  relation  to  the  speaker,  or  to  some  other  person  or  thing;  see  314,  II.,  with  foot-noto 

*  AUo  called  Substantice  Pi-onvunt,  because  they  are  always  uted  tubatantivtlv. 


Ego,  /. 

TO,  ^<w.          Sul, 

^  Aw 

SINGULAR. 

Jfom.  ego* 

to. 

Gfen,.    mel 

tul 

eul1 

Da/     mini  or  ml 

tibl 

sib! 

Ace,     mo 

te 

sfi 

Foe. 

ta 

/4W.     m6 

u 

«• 

PLURAL. 

JVom.  nOs 

vOs 

^(nostrum 
(nostrl 

vestrum  *> 
vestrf       > 

8Ul 

/)<tf.    nObls 

vCbls 

sibi 

^•lc<r.    nOs 

vOs 

96 

Voc. 

vOs 

Alii,   nobls 

vobte 

86 

71 
him»df,  etc.1 


1.  The  CASE-ENDINGS  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns. 

2.  Suf,  of  hnnsetf,  etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. 

8.  EMPHATIC  FORMS  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. :  egomet,  I  my- 
self; /'nut,  etc.  But  the  Norn,  tu  has  lute  and  tiitemti,  not  tumet. 

4.  REDUPLICATED  FORMS. — Sesd,  tett.^  mtone,  for  «g,  ^, »?«. 

5.  ANCIENT  AND  RARE  FORMS.— Mis  for  mtU ;  tfc  fortui;  mid  and  mtptt 
1ormi;  ted  for  it;  sed,  sepse,  for  ««. 

6.  CUM,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a  Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
Jo  it :  mecum,  tecum. 

II.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

185.  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Possessive*: 
meus,  a,  um,  my  ;  noster,  tra,  trum,  our ; 

tuus,   a,  um,  thy,  your ;       vester,  tra,  trum,  your ; 
guus,   a,  um,  7m,  Tiers,  its;  suus,     a,     um,     their. 

*  Of  himself,  herself,  ihelf.    The  Nominative  is  not  us«d. 

'  Ego  has  no  connection  In  form  with  me'i,  mihl,  etc.,  but  it  corresponds  to  the 
Oreek  iyiav,  iy<a.  The  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tn  In  the  singular  are  derived  from  th« 
Indo-European  roots  ma  and  tva.  Compare  the  Accusative  Singular  of  each  in — 

SANSKRIT.  OKEKK.  LATIN.  ENOLISIL 

ma-m  or  ma,  n4,  nu",  me. 

tTa-m  or  tva,  re  or  at,  t ',  thee. 

.<»/",  */*;,  n<\  in  both  numbers  are  formed  from  the  root  tra.    The  origin  of  the  plan) 
forms  of  ego  and  tii  Is  obscure.    See  Paplllon,  pp.  142-149;  KQhnor,  I.,  pp.  878-382. 

•  Vwtrum  and  ventrl.  are  also  written  to/drum  and  vottri,  though  less  correctly. 
If  el,  tu>,  »u7,  nostrl,  and  vestri,  are  in  form  strictly  Possessives  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  but  b) 
use  they  have  become  Personal.  Nottrl  and  vestri  have  also  become  Plural.  Thus,  memoi 
iextr~i,  •mindful  of  you,1  means  literally  mitulful ofyourn,  i.  e.,  of  your  welfare,  interest 
Vbstrum  and  veetruin,  fur  nontn'irum  and  *>e*tr<~n-uiit.  are  also  Posseisivea:  se«  186>. 


PRONOUNS. 


NOTS  1.-  Posaesaiv-isare  declined  as  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declension! 
trot  >/ii  a*  has  in  the  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  generally  mi,  sometimes  meus,  and  IB 
the  Genitive  Plural  sometimes  meuni  instead  ofmedrum,1 

NOTE  2. — Emphatic  forms  In  pte  and  met  occur:  nitapfe,  suamet. 

NOTE  8. — Other  possess! ves  are:  (1)  ctijus,  a,  um?  'whose,'  and  cftju*,  a,  um,* 
'whose?'  declined  like  bonus,  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostrum,  Genitive  dtis,  'of  our  coun- 
try,' vestrtu,  Genitive  iitit, '  of  your  country,'  and  cHj<~is,  Genitive  atis, '  of  whose  conn 
try,'  declined  as  adjectives  of  Declension  III. 

III.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

186.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  spe- 
cify the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are  declined  as  follows: 
L  Hie,  this.* 


SINGULAR. 

MASO. 

FKIL 

Nitre. 

Norn,  hlc 

baec 

hSc 

Gen.  hujus 

hujus 

liiij  us  * 

Dot.   huio 

buic 

buic 

Ao-.    hunc 

hanc 

h5c« 

Abl.    hOo 

hae 

hoc 

MASC. 
hi 

hOriiin 
bis 
hSs 
his 


PLURAL. 
FEM. 
hae1 
harum 
his 
has 
hla 


NBUT. 
haec 
liornm 
his 
haec 
his 


II.  Iste,  that,  that  of  yours  ;*  see  450. 
SINGULAR. 


MAM. 

FEB. 

(JEUT. 

Nom.  iste 

ista 

istud 

Gen.  istlus 

istius 

istius6 

Dot.   istl 

istl 

istl 

Ace.   istum 

istam 

istud8 

iw  ista 

ista 

ist6 

PLURAL. 

MASC. 

FBH. 

NEUT. 

istl 

istae 

ista 

istOrura 

istftrum 

istSruaa 

istls 

istls 

istls 

istus 

istas 

ista 

istls 

istls 

istls 

1  In  early  Latin  fmix  \»  sometimes  written  tovog,  and  mi  us,  sovot, 

'  From  the  relative  qui,  cftjus  (187),  also  written  qumns. 

'  From  the  interrogative  quiz,  cujus  (188),  also  written  qaMw. 

*  The  stem  of  hie  is  Ao,  ha,  which  by  the  addition  of  ;',  another  pronominal  stem 
»een  In  <-«,  'he,1  becomes  In  certain  cases  hi  (for  ho-t),  hae  (for  ha-i),  as  in  Af-c,  hae-c 
The  forms  ho,  ha,  appear  in  hii-c,  ha-nc.    Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  this  pronoun  are 
hie  (for  Afc),  Twins  (for  fiiijus),  hoic,  hoioe  (for  huic),  hone  (for  hunc),  heis,  htinoe,  hit, 
\lnce  (for  hice,  M),  Mbus  (for  hit). 

*  The  Genitive  suffix  is  UK,  appended  to  the  stem  after  the  addition  of  i  (foot-note  4) : 
ko-i-u«,  hujus  (f  changed  to.;  between  two  vowels,  28) ,  isto-i-u*,  ist~iu«  (i  retained  after 
•  consonant).    The  suffix  u«,  originally  </*,  is  in  origin  the  same  as  the  suffix  is  in  the 
third  declension.    In  one  the  original  vowel  a  is  weakened  to  •«,  and  in  the  other  to  t 
A«e  Wordsworth,  p.  95 ;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  307. 

In  prose  i  in  the  ending  lit*  la  generally  long. 

•  Demonstrative.  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  want  the  Vocative 
r  Here  the  form  with  c,  haec,  is  sometimes  used. 

•  The  stem  of  itte  (for  itttus)  is  isto  in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  ixla  in  the  Fern.    4 
to  weakened  to  (,  in  istr,  (24,  1,  note)  and  to  « in  istu-d.     Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  i«U 


PRONOUNS. 


78 


in.  Hie,  that,1  that  one,  he,  is  declined  like  iste  ;  see  n.  on  the 

preceding  page. 

IV.  Is,  he,  this,  that* 


MASO. 

FEM. 

NBUT. 

Nom.  is 

ea 

id 

Gen.    gjus 

ejus 

ejus 

Dot.    & 

* 

&* 

Ace.    eum 

earn 

id4 

Abl.    e6 

ea 

eO 

PLURAL. 

MASO. 

PEM. 

NEUT. 

el,  tt 

eae 

ea 

eSrum 

earum 

eorum 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

eSs 

efts 

ea 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

PLtTRAL. 

N«UT. 

MASO. 

FEM. 

NlUT. 

ipsum 

ipsl 

ipsae 

ipsa 

ipsius 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsOrum 

ipsl 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsum 

ipsOs 

ipsas 

ipsa 

ipsO 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

V.  Ipse,  self,  he.* 

SINGULAR. 

MASO.  FEM. 

Nom.  ipse  ipsa 

Gen.   ipsius  ipsius 

Dot.    ipsl  ipsl 

Ace.    ipsum  ipsam 

Abl.    ipsO  ipsa 

VI.  Idem,  the  same.* 

»re  l«lV4  (for  fV<?\  forms  in  i,  at.  I  (for  f  i«)  in  the  Genitive,  and  in  f>,  tie,  5  (for  i)  in  the 
Dat. :  is<i  (for  ist'lus),  ittfi  (for  w<l),  ista«  (for  ixftut  or  »*<i). 

1  The  stem  of  ille  (for  i/lus)  is  i//o,  -j//a.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  are  (1)  Hint  (for 
ille),  forms  in  >,  ««,  f  (for  iw«)  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  6,  a«,  '"<  (for  I)  in  the 
Dative  Singular :  illl  (for  illiu#\  etc. ;  (2)  forms  from  ollux  or  o//e  (for  those  from  ille): 
ollun,  olle,  olla,  etc. 

3  The  stem  of  is  is  i,  strengthened  in  most  of  its  case-forms  to  eo,  ea.  Ancient  or 
rare  forms  of  i«  are,  eis  (for  it) ;  e-i-ei,  ei-ei,  i-ei,  eae  (for  Dative  Singular  el);  im,  em 
(for  eum) ;  e-«is,  i-eig,  eis  (for  Nominative  Plural  el) ;  f-i-eit,  ei-eis,  e-eit,  fftw*,  eabut 
(for  tin).  To  these  may  be  added  a  few  rare  forms  from  a  root  of  kindred  meaning,  no, 
*a:  sum,  »am=eum,  earn;  *•'«,  »d»=efiK,  eatt.  This  root  appears  in  ip-gus,  ip-sa,  ip- 
tum  Si,  if,  and  sl-c.  thus,  are  probably  Locatives  from  this  root  or  from  eva,  the  root 
of«ui(184). 

3  Sometimes  a  diphthong  in  poetry.    In  the  same  way  the  plural  forms  el,  i>,  els,  in, 
hro  sometimes  monosyllables.    Instead  of  II  and  Us,  i  and  IK  are  sometimes  written. 

4  Bee  page  72,  foot-note  6. 

•  Ipse  (for  ipnut  —  i-pe-sut)  is  compounded  of  i»  or  its  stem  i,  the  intensive  particle 
pe,  'even,1  'indeed,1  and  the  pronominal  root  so,  «a,  mentioned  in  foot-note  2  above. 
The  stem  is  if/so,  ipsa,  but  forms  occur  with  the  first  part  declined  and  pse  unchanged  : 
eum-pte,  eam-pue,  etc. ;  sometimes  combined  with  re :  redpse  =  rf-tHpue  =  re  iptd,  'in 
reality.'    fpsus  (for  ipse)  is  not  uncommon. 

•  In  Idem,  compounded  of  it  and  dem,  only  the  first  part  is  declined,    ltd  em  ii 
shortened  to  Idem,  iddem  to  Mem,  and  m  it  changed  to  n  before  dem  (33,  4).    In 
early  Latin  eiftdem  and  indent  occur  for  Idem,  eidem  and  Idem  for  idem; 

Mid  ltdem  in  the  Nominative  Plural  for  eldem. 


PRONOUNS. 


Feu. 


NBITT. 


MASO. 


FEM 


N»UT, 


ffom.  Idem  eadem  idem 

Gen.  gjusdem  Sjusdem  ejusdem 

Dot.   eldem  eldem  £idem' 

Ace.    eundem  eandem  idem 

Abf.    eodem  eadem  eOdem 


(  eldem  * 

J.  .  ,  eaedem  eadem 
(  udem 

eOrundem  earundem  e6rundeui 

elsdem  elsdem  elsdem  * 

ilsdem  ilsdem  iisdem 

eOsdem  easdem  eadem 

elsdem  elsdem  elsdem  * 

ilsdem  ilsdem  ilsdem 


1.  Hie  (for  hl-ee)  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  ce, 
meaning  here.    The  forms  in  c  have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.    But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis ;  hlcc, 
hujusee,  hosce,  horunce  (m  changed  to  ri),  horunc  (c  dropped).    Ce,  changed 
to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne :  hlnne,  hdscine. 

2.  ILLIC  AND  IsTic,3  also  compounded  with  the  particle  co,  are  declined 
alike,  as  follows : 


SINGULAR. 


MASO. 

FEM. 

NETIT. 

Nom.  illlc 
Gen.  illiusce 

illaec 
illfusce 

illuc  (ill6o) 
illlusce  « 

Dot.   illlc 

illic 

illio 

Ace.   illuno 
Abl.    illoc 

illano 
iliac 

illue  (illoo) 
illcc 

MABO. 
illio 

illlsce 
illosce 
illlsce 


PLURAL. 

FBM. 
illacc 

illlsce 
illasce 
illlace 


NKUT. 
illaec 

illlsce 
illaec 
illlsce 


8.  SYNCOPATED  FOEMS,  compounded  of  ecce  or  en,  '  lo,'  '  see,'  and  some 
cases  of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Accusative  of  ille  and  is,  occur :  eccfim 
for  ecce  eum  ;  eccos  for  ecce  eos  ;  ellum  for  en  ilium  ;  ellam  for  en  illam. 

4.  DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  talis,  e,  such ;  tantus,  a,  um,  so  great ;  tot, 
BO  many;  totut,  a,  um,  so  great.  Tot  is  indeclinable;  the  rest  regular. 

NOTE. — For  tdlis,  the  Genitive  of  a  demonstrative  with  modi  (Genitive  of  moduli, 
measure,  kind)  is  often  used:  hiijuf/modl,  fjusmodl,  of  this  kind,  such. 

IV.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

187.  The  Relative  qul,  *who/  so  called  because  it  re- 
lates to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood, 
called  its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows :  * 

1  Sometimes  a  dissyllable. 

8  Eldem  and  elsdem  are  the  approved  form*.  Instead  of  ildem  and  iitidem,  dis 
syllables  in  poetry,  Idem  and  Isdem  are  often  written. 

3  Illic  and  ist'lc  are  formed  from  the  stems  of  ille  and  ixte,  in  the  same  manner  as  /IK 
to  formed  from  its  stem ;  see  page  72,  foot-note  4. 

•  Observe  that  ce  ts  retained  in  full  after  *,  but  shortened  to  c  in  all  other  situations. 

*  The  stem  of  qul  is  quo,  <2**a,  which  becomes  co,  cu  in  ay  in  and  cm.     Qul  »nd 


PRONOUNS. 


75 


U&so. 

FKM. 

N«CT. 

/Vom.  qul 

quae 

quod 

Gen.  cujus 

CUJUS 

cujus 

Dot.    cui 

cui 

cui 

Ace.    quern  l 

quain 

quod 

All.    quo 

qua 

quO 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

MASC,  FBM.  NECT. 

qul  quae  quae 

quOrum  quarum  quorum 

quibus  quibus  quibus 

quOs  quas  quae 

quibus  quibus  quibus 

1.  Qul  *  =  qudt  qua-) '  with  which,'  '  wherewith,'  is  a  Locative  or  Ablative 
of  the  relative  qul. 

2.  Oum,  when  used  with  the  Ablative  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it :  quibuscum. 

3.  Qulcumqiie  and  Quisquis,  *  whoever,'  are  called  from  their  signification 
general  relatives.3     Quicumque  (qulcunque)  is  declined  like  qul.     Quisquis  is 
rare  except  in  the  forms,  quisquis,  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoqvo. 

NOTE.— The  parts  of  Quicumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more  words : 

qua  re  cumque. 

4.  RELATIVE  ADJECTIVES:   qualis,  e,  such  as;  quantus,  o,  urn,  so  great; 
quot,  as  many  as;  quotut,  a,  um,  of  which  number;  and  the  double  and 
compound  forms:  quaUsquaUs^  qualiscumque,  etc. 

NOTB.— For  QuaUt  the  Genitive  of  the  relative  with  modi  is  often  used :  ctijusmodl, 
nt  what  kind,  such  as;  eujutcumquemodi,  cuicuimodl  (for  cujwcujusmodi.),  of  what- 
ever kind. 

V.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

188.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  quis  and  qul,  with 
their  compounds,*  are  used  in  asking  questions.  They  are 
declined  as  follows : 

quae  are  formed  from  quo  and  qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  7/7- c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  lia  '  see 
186,  I.,  foot-note  4.  Ancient  or  rare  forms  are  </«<•'',  quix  (for  qiti),  Nom.  Sing. ;  quirius 
(i  =  J);  qu&t,  cui  (for  ciijus,  as  in  cuimodl  =  ofijwnnodl),  quoiei,  quoi  (for  eui) ;  qurx 
(for  gut),  Nom.  Plur. ;  qual  (for  quae},  Fern,  and  Neut.  Plur. ;  queis,  quis  (for  quibus). 

1  An  Accusative  quom,  also  written  quum  and  cum,  formed  directly  from  the  steip 
quo,  became  the  conjunction  quom,  quum,  cum,  •  when,'  lit.  during  which,  I.  e.,  during 
which  time.    Indeed,  several  conjunctions  are  in  their  origin  Accusatives  of  pronouns- 
yunm,  'in  what  way,'  'how,'  is  the  Accusative  of  qul;  quamquam^  'however  rnu«fc,' 
the  Accusative  of  quis-qui*  (187,  8);  turn,  'then.'  and  tarn,  'so,'  Accusatives  of  the 
pronominal  stem  to,  in,  seen  In  is-lus,  is-te,  is-ta  (186,  II.,  foot-note  8). 

2  This  is  an  element  in  quln  =  qul-ne, '  by  which  not,' '  that  not,'  and  In  quippe  = 
qu\-pe,  'indeed.' 

8  Relative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  may  be  made  general  in  signification  by 
taking  cumque,  like  qui-cumque,  or  by  being  doubled  like  quis-quin  :  qut'i lin-cumqut, 
qiu~>lix-qu<~iHx,  of  whatever  kind ;  uf>i-cumqut,  ubi-ubl,  wheresoever. 

«  The  relative  qul.  the  interrogatives  quin,  qul,  and  the  indefinites  quit,  qui,  are 
all  lormed  from  the  stem  quo,  qua.  The  ancient  and  r»re  forms  are  nearly  tb«  $am«  !«• 
all;  see  page  71.  foot  uote  6 


76 


PRONOUNS. 


I.  Quis,  who,  which,  what? 


SINGULAR. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NKUT. 

Nom.  quis 

quae 

quid 

Gen.   cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

Dat.    cui 

cui 

cui 

Ace.    quern 

quam 

quid 

Abl.    quo 

qua 

qu6 

PLTJRAI.. 

MASC. 

FEU. 

NEITT. 

qul 

quae 

quae 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

quos 

quas 

quae 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

II.  Qui,  which,  what  ?  is  declined  like  the  relative  qul. 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  Qul,  adjectively.    The  forms 
qui»  and  quern  are  sometimes  feminine. 

2.  Qul,  how  I  in  what  way  ?  is  a  Locative  or  Ablative  of  the  interrogative 
quis  ;  see  187,  1. 

8.  COMPOUNDS  of  quis  and  qul  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns :  quis- 
nam,  quinam,  ecquix,  etc.  But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquae. 

4.  INTERROGATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  quali*,  e,  what  1  quantus,  a,  um,  how 
great  ?  quot,  how  many  ?  quotus,  a,  um,  of  what  number  ?  uter,  utra,  utrum, 
which  (of  two)  ?  see  151. 

VI.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

189.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
persons  or  things.     The  most  important  are  quis  and  qul, 
with  their  compounds. 

190.  Quis,   'any  one,'  and  qul,   'any  one,'   'any,'  are 
the  same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogatives  quis 
and  qul.     But — 

1.  After  si,  nisi,  lie,  and  num,  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  qucu 
or  qua :  si  quae,  si  qua. 

2.  Front  quis  and  qul  are  formed — 

1)   The  Indefinites: 

aliquia,  aliqua,  aliquid      or  aliquod,1  some,  tome  one. 

quispiam,  quaepiam,  quidpiam  or  quodpiam,8  some,  some  one. 

quldam,  quaedam,  quiddam   or  quoddam,3  certain,  certain  one. 

quisquam,  quaequam,  quicquam  or  quidquam,4  any  one. 


1  Aliquis  is  compounded  of  all,  seen  in  uli-u»;  qvfoquam,  of  <?«t'sand  quam  ;  quit- 
qu«,  of  quis  and  que  (from  qul) ;  qulwis,  of  qul  and  the  verb  vis  (29:*),  'you  wish'— 
hence  qul-vls,  'any  you  wish1;  quilibet,  otqul  and  the  impersonal  libet,  'it  pleases.' 

a  Also  written  quippiam,  quoppiam. 

*  Quidarn  changes  m  to  n  before  d :  que.nd.am  for 

4  i.>uimj!iiini  generally  wants  the  Fern,  and  the  Plur. 


PRONOUNS. 


77 


2)  The  General  Indefinites : 

quisque,  quaeque,  quidque    or  quodque,1          every,  every  one. 

qulvls,  quaevls,  quidvls     or  quodvls,  any  one  you  please. 

qullibet,  quaelibet,          quidlibet  or  quodlibet,          any  one  you  please. 

NOTE  1. — These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  quis  and  qiti,  but  they  have 
In  the  Neut.  Sing,  quod  used  adjectively,  and  quid  substantively. 

NOTE  2.— Aliquis  has  aliqua  instead  of  aliquae  in  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Nent.  Plur. 
AUqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

191.  The  correspondence  which  exists  between  Demonstratives,  Rela- 
tives, Interrogatives,  and  Indefinites,  is  seen  in  the  following 

TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES. 


IXTEBBOGATIVK. 

bnnmnm 

DEMONSTRATIVE. 

BKLAUVB. 

quit,  qul, 
who  ?  what  ?  » 

quis,  qul*  any  one, 
any;  aliquit,*  some 
one,  some  ;  quidam, 
certain  one,  certain  ; 

Me,  this  one,  this;4 
itte,  that  one,  that; 
iile,  that  one,  that; 
is,  he,  that  ; 

qui,*  who. 

uter,  which 
of  two  I 

uter  or  alteruter,  ei- 
ther of  two  ; 

uterquw,  each,  both  ;  8 

qw,  who. 

qvdfa,  of 
what  kind? 

qudlislibet,*  of  any 
kind; 

tdtis,  such  ; 

qudUs,3  as. 

quantut,  how 
great? 

aliquantug,  some- 
what great  ;   quan- 
tusmt,   as   great  as 
you  please  ; 

tantus,  so  great  ; 

quantus,3  as, 
as  great. 

quot,  how 
many? 

aliquot,  some  ; 

tot,  so  many  ; 

quot,  as,   as 
many. 

NOTE. — NesciS  qui*, '  I  know  not  who,1  has  become  in  effect  an  indefinite  pronoun 
=  quidam ,  '  some  one.'  So  also  nendfi  qu>,  'I  know  not  which '  or  *  what '  =  '  some ' ; 
M*ci?>  quot  =  aliquot.  '  some,1  '  a  certain  number.1 

1  In  Qnut-quixqite  both  parts  are  regularly  declined. 

8  Observe  that  the  question  yuiit  or  qul,  who  or  what?  may  be  answered  indefi- 
nitely by  qms,  qul,  alitjuis,  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a  demonstrative,  either  alone  or  with 
a  relative,  as  by  hie,  this  one,  or  hlc  qul,  this  one  who;  i*.  he,  or  i«  qul,  he  who,  etc. 

*  In  form  observe  that  the  Indefinite  Is  either  the  same  as  the  interrogative  or  is  a 
compound  of  it :  quit,  ali-qui«,  qul,  qui-dam,  and  that  the  relative  is  usually  the  same 
M  the  interrogative. 

«  On  hie,  Me,  ille,  and  it,  see  45O;  451, 1. 

*  Or  one  of  the  demonstratives,  file,  iste,  «tc. 


78  VERBS. 

CHAPTER    IV. 
VERBS. 

192.  VERBS  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  express  existence, 
condition,  or  action:   est,  he  is;  dormit,  he  is  sleeping; 
legit,  he  reads. 

193.  Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes: 

I.  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  admit  a  direct  object  of  the  action : 
servum  verier  at,  he  beats  the  slave.1 

II.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  do  not  admit  such  an  object  .- 
puer  currit,  the  boy  runs.1 

1 94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

I.  VOICES. 

195.  There  are  two  voices: 

I.  The  ACTIVE  VOICE*  represents  the  subject  as  ACTING 
or  EXISTING  :  pater  f  Ilium  amat,  the  father  loves  his  son ; 
est,  he  is. 

II.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject  as  ACTED 
UPON  by  some  other  person  or  thing :  fllius  d  patre  amd- 
tur,  the  son  is  loved  by  his  father. 

1.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  hut  are  some- 
times used  impersonally  in  the  passive  ;  see  3O1, 1. 

2.  DEPONENT  VERBS  s  are  Passive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense :  loquor,  to 
speak.     But  see  231. 

II.  MOODS. 

1 96.  There  are  three  moods : 4 

1  Here  servum,  'the  slave,1  is  the  object  of  the  action  :  beats  (what?)  the  slave.  The 
object  thus  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb.  lie  beats  is  incomplete  in  sense,  but  I'i6 
boy  runs  is  complete,  and  accordingly  does  not  admit  an  object. 

8  Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  acted  upon  (Passive 
Voice).  Thus,  with  the  Active  Voice, '  the  father  loves  his  «m,'  Cue  subject,  father,  if 
the  one  who  performs  the  action,  loves,  while  with  the  Passive  Voice, '  the  sor.  is  loved 
by  the  father,11  the  subject,  ton,  merely  receives  the  action,  is  acted  upon,  is  loved. 

1  So  called  from  deponi,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning.  For  deponent  verbs  with  the  sense  of  the  Greek  Middle, 
see  465. 

*  Mood,  or  Mode,  means  manner,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moodi. 


VERBS.  79 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  MOOD  either  asserts  something  as  a 
fact  or  inquires  after  the  fact: 

Legit,  HE  is  READING.  Legitne,  is  HE  READING?  Servius  regnavit,  Ser- 
vius  REIGNED.  Quis  ego  sum,  who  AM  If 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD  expresses  not  an  actual  fact, 
but  a  possibility  or  conception.     It  is  best  translated ' — 

1.  Sometimes  by  the  English  auxiliaries,"  let,  may,  might,  should, 
would: 

Amemus  patriam,  LET  us  LOVE  our  county.  Sint  beatl,  MAY  THEY  BE 
happy.  Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  MAY  INQUIRE.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no  one 
WOULD  SAY  this.  Ego  censeam,  I  SHOULD  THINK,  or  /  AM  INCLINED  TO  THINK. 
Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  HE  MAY  CONQUER.'  Domum  ubi  habitdret, 
legit,  he  selected  a  house  where  HE  MIGHT  DWELL. 

2.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Indicative,  especially  by  the  Future 
forms  with  shall  and  will  : 

Huic  ceddmus,  SHALL  WE  YIELD  to  this  one  ?  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est, 
wfuit  a  day  WILL  BRINO  FORTH  is  uncertain.  DubitO  nura  debeam,  1  doubt 
whether  I  OUGHT.  Quaeslvit  si  liceret,  he  inquired  whether  IT  WAS  LAWFUL, 

8.  Sometimes  by  the  Imperative,  especially  in  prohibitions  : 

Scrlbere  ne  pigrere,  DO  not  NEOLEOT  to  write.  Ne  trdnsieris  Iberum,  DO 
not  CROSS  the  Ebro. 

4.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Infinitive:* 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  TO  CONQUER."*  MissI  sunt  qul  contulerent 
Apollinem,  they  were  tent  TO  CONSULT  Apollo. 

III.  The  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  expresses  a  command  or  an 
entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  PRACTISE  justice.  Tu  n6  cede  malls,  DO  not  YIELD  to  mii- 
fortuties. 

1  The  use  and  proper  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  musi  be  learned  from  the  Syn- 
tax. A  few  illustrations  are  here  given  to  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  Para- 
digms of  the  Verbs;  see  477-53O. 

1  This  is  generally  the  proper  translation  in  simple  sentences  and  in  principal  clauses 
:  483),  and  sometimes  even  In  subordinate  clauses  (49O). 

1  Or,  he  Htriren  TO  CONQUER;  eee  4  below,  with  foot-note  4. 

4  The  English  has  a  few  remnants  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  which  may  also  be  used 
In  translating  the  Latin  Subjunctive:  Utinam  possem,  would  that  I  WERE  ABLE. 

*  Observe,  however,  that  the  Infinitive  here  -is  not  the  translation  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive alone,  but  of  the  Subjunctive  with  its  subject  and  connective :  ut  vincat,  to  con- 
quer (lit.,  that  he  may  conquer) ;  qu!  consulerent,  to  contult  (lit.,  u-ko  should 
oontult). 


80  VERBS. 

III.   TENSES. 

197.  There  are  six  tenses: 

I.  THREE  TENSES  FOR  INCOMPLETE  ACTION: 

1.  Present:  amo,  I  love,  I  am  loving.1 

2.  Imperfect :  amdbam,  I  was  loving,  I  loved. 

3.  Future :  amdbo,  I  shall  love,  I  will  love. 

II.  THREE  TENSES  FOR  COMPLETED  ACTION. 

1.  Perfect :  amdvl,  I  have  loved,  I  loved. 

2.  Pluperfect :  amdveram,  I  had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect :  amdvero,  I  shall  have  loved.* 

NOTE  1. — The  Latin  Perfect  sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with 
have  (have  loved),  and  is  called  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite  ;  and 
sometimes  to  our  Imperfect  or  Past  (loved),  and  is  called  the  Historical  Per-^ 
feet  or  Perfect  Indefinite.3 

NOTE  2. — The  Indicative  Mood  has  all  the  six  tenses ;  the  Subjunctive  has 
the  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect ;  the  Imperative,  the  Present 
and  Future  only.4 

198.  PRINCIPAL    AND    HISTORICAL.— Tenses   are  also   distin- 
guished as — 

I.  PRINCIPAL  or  PRIMARY  TENSES: 

1.  Present :  am8,  I  love. 

2.  Present  Perfect :  amdvl,  I  have  loved. 8 

3.  Future :  amabo,  I  shall  love. 

4.  Future  Perfect :  amdverd,  I  shall  have  loved. 

II.  HISTORICAL  or  SECONDARY  TENSES: 

1.  Imperfect:  amdbam,  I  was  loving. 

2.  Historical  Perfect :  amdm,  I  loved.8 
8.  Pluperfect:  amdveram,  I  had  loved. 


1  Or,  /  do  love.  The  English  did  may  also  be  used  In  translating  the  Imperfect  and 
Perfect:  I  did  lone. 

*  Or,  /  will  have  loved. 

1  Thus  the  Latin  Perfect  combines  within  itself  the  force  and  use  of  two  distinct 
tenses— the  Perfect  proper,  seen  in  the  Greek  Perfect,  and  the  Aorist,  seen  in  the  Greek 
Aorist:  amavi  =  jre^iArjKa,  I  have  loved;  amavi  =  c0iAt)<ra,  I  loved.  The  Historical 
Perfect  and  the  Imperfect  both  represent  the  action  as  past,  but  the  former  regards 
it  simply  as  a  historical  fact— I  loved ;  while  the  latter  regards  it  as  in  progress— 1 
was  loving. 

4  The  nice  distinctions  of  tense  hare  been  fully  developed  only  in  the  Indicative.  In 
the  Subjunctive  and  Imperative,  the  time  of  the  action  is  less  prominent  and  is  less  defi- 
nitely marked. 


VERBS.  81 

199.  NUMBERS  AND  PERSONS. — There  are  two  numbers, 
SINGULAR  and  PLURAL/  and  three  persons,  FIRST,  SEC- 
OND, and  THIRD.' 

NOTE. — The  various  verbal  forms  which  have  voice,  mood,  tense,  number, 
and  person,  make  up  the  finite  verb. 

200.  Among  verbal  forms  are  included  the  following 
verbal  nouns  and  adjectives : 

I.  The  INFINITIVE  is  a  verbal  noun.8  It  is  sometimes  best  trans- 
lated by  the  English  Infinitive,  sometimes  by  the  verbal  noun  in  ING, 
and  sometimes  by  the  Indicative  : 

£xire  ex  urbe  vo!6,  /  wish  TO  GO  out  of  the  city.  Gesti6  scire  omnia,  1  long 
TO  KNOW  all  tilings.  Haec  scire  juvat,  TO  KNOW  these  things  affords  pleasure. 
Peccdre  licet  nemini,  TO  SIN  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Vincere s  sols,  you  know 
how  TO  CONQUER,  or  you  understand  OONQUERING.S  Te  dlcuut  esse*  sapien- 
tem,  they  say  that  you  ABE  4  wise.  Sentlmus  calere 4  Ignem,  we  perceive  that 
fire  IB  HOT.*  See  also  Syntax,  53)2-539. 

n.  The  GERUND  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of 
a  verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used  only  in  the  genitive, 
dative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singular.  It  corresponds  to  the  Eng- 
lish verbal  noun  in  ING: 

Amandl,  OF  LOVING.  Amandl  causa,  for  the  sake  OF  LOVING.  Are  Viven- 
di, the  art  OF  LIVING.  Cupidus  tS  audiendi,  desirous  OF  HEARING  you.  Utilin 
bibendo,  useful  FOB  DBINKING.  Ad  discendum  pr6pensus,  inclined  TO  LEABN,° 
or  TO  LEABNING.  Mfins  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  BY  LEARNING. 
See  also  Syntax,  541-544. 

HI.  The  SUPINE  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a 
verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension.  It  has  a  form  in  urn  and  a 
form  in  u : 

Amdtum,  TO  LOVE,  FOB  LOVING.     Amdt&,  TO  BE  LOVED,  FOB  LOVINO,  IN 


1  As  in  Nouns;  see  44. 

4  The  Infinitive  has  the  characteristics  both  of  verbs  and  of  noons.  As  a  verb,  it  gov- 
erns oblique  cases  and  takes  adverbial  modifiers ;  as  a  noun,  it  Is  itself  governed.  In 
origin  it  is  a  verbal  noun  in  the  Dative  or  Locative.  See  Jolly,  pp.  179-200. 

3  Observe  that  the  infinitive  vincere  may  b«  translated  by  the  English  infinitive,  to 
conquer,  or  by  the  verbal  noun,  conquering. 

4  Observe  that  the  infinitives  e*se  and  calere  are  translated  by  the  indicative  are  and 
it  (it  hot) ;  and  that  the  Ace.  tf,  the  subject  of  ttse,  U  translated  by  the  Nom.  you,  the 
subject  of  are ;  and  that  the  Ace.  lynem,  the  subject  of  oaler*,  Is  translated  by  the  Nom. 
flrt,  the  subject  of  is. 

1  Occasionally  the  Gerund,  especially  with  a  preposition,  may  be  thus  translated  by 
the  English  infinitive. 


8&  VERBS. 

LOVING.     Auxilium  postuldtum  venfc,  he  came  TO  ASK  aid.    Difficile  dicta  est, 
ii  is  difficult  TO  TELL.     See  Syntax,  545-547. 

NOTE. — The  Supine  in  urn,  is  an  Accusative  in  form,  while  the  Supine  in 
u  may  be  either  a  Dative  or  an  Ablative ;  see  116. 

IV.  The  PARTICIPLE  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  gives  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective.1  It  is  sometimes  best 
translated  by  the  English  Participle  or  Infinitive,  and  sometimes 
by  a  Clause : 

Amdne,  LOVING.  Amdturus,  ABOUT  TO  LOVE.  Amatut,  LOVED.  Aman- 
dut,  DESERVING  TO  BE  LOVED.  Plato  scribetis  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  WHILE 
WRITING,  or  WHILE  HE  WAS  WRITING.  Sol  oriens  diem  conncit,  the  sun  RISING, 
or  WHEN  IT  RISES,2  causes  the  day.  Rediit  belli  casum  tentdiurus,  he  returned 
TO  THY  (lit.,  about  to  try)  the  fortune  of  war.  In  amlcls  elioendisf  in  SELECT- 
ING friends.  See  Syntax,  548-550. 

NOTE. — A  Latin  verb  may  have  four  participles :  two  in  the  Active,  the 
Present  and  the  Future,  amans,  amaturus  ;  and  two  iii  the  Passive,  the  Per- 
fect and  the  Gerundive,3  amdtus,  amandus. 

CONJUGATION. 

201.  Regular  verbs  are  inflected,  or  conjugated,  in  four 
different  ways,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four  Con- 
jugations,4 distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem  char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Infinitive,  as  follows : 

CHARACTERISTICS.          INFINITIVE  ENDINGS. 

CONJ.  I.  a  a-re 

II.  d  e-re 

III.  e  e-re 

IV.  I  l-re 

202.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. — The  Present  Indicative,  Pres- 
ent Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine  are  called 
from  their  importance  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 

1  Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  adjectives  in  form  and  inflection.    As  verbs,  they 
govern  oblique  cases ;  as  adjectives,  they  agree  with  nouns. 
a  Or  by  its  rising. 

3  Sometimes  called  the  Future  Passive  Participle.    In  agreement  with  a  noun,  it 
is  often  best  translated  like  a  gerund  governing  that  noun ;  see  544. 

4  The  Four  Conjugations  are  onlj  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection,  as  the 
differences  between  them  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the  union  of  different  final 
letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  system  of  suffixes;  see  Comparative  View 
of  Conjugations,  213-214 


VERBS.  83 

NOTE  1. — In  the  inflection  of  verbs  it  is  found  convenient  to  recognize  foui 
B  terns: 

1)  The  Verb-Stem,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  entire  conjugation.     This  is 
often  called  simply  the  Stem. 

2)  Three  Special  Stems,  the  Present  Stem,  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Su- 
pine Stem. 

NOTE  2. — The  Special  Stems  are  formed  from  the  i'erb-Stem,  unless  they 
are  identical  with  it.1 

203.  The  ENTIRE  CONJUGATION  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 
of  the  proper  endings.2 

1.  SUM,  /  am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of  regular 
verbs.  Accordingly,  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must  be  given 
at  the  outset.  The  Principal  Parts  are — 

PBES.  INDIO.  PEBS.  INFIN.  PKKF.  INDIC. 

sum,  I  am,  esse,  to  be,  ful,  /  have  been. 

NOTE  1. — Swn  has  no  Supine. 

NOTE  2. — Two  independent  stem,*  or  roots3  are  used  in  the  conjugation  of 
this  verb,  viz. :  (1)  «s,  seen  in  s-um  (for  ets-um)  and  in  «.s--«e,  and  ('2;  fu,  seen 
in  fu-i. 

1  For  the  treatment  of  8tems,  see  240-256.  In  many  verbs  the  stem  is  itself  de- 
rived from  a  more  primitive  form  called  a  Root.  For  the  distinction  between  roots  and 
stems,  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 
*  In  the  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings  which  distinguish  the  various  forms 
are  separately  Indicated,  and  should  be  carefully  noticed.  In  the  parts  derived  from  the 
present  stem  (222, 1.)  each  ending  contains  the  characteristic  vowel. 

3  The  forms  of  irregular  verbs  are  often  derived  from  different  roots.  Thus  in  Eng- 
lish, am,  iftut,  been ;  go,  went,  gone.  Indeed,  the  identical  roots  used  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  sum  are  in  constant  use  in  our  ordinary  speech.  The  root  <vf,  Greek  «9,  originally 
ax,  is  seen  in  am  (for  as-mi),  art  (for  as-t),  are  (for  ns-e);  the  root/w,  Greek  </>u.  origi- 
nally Wiit,  is  seen  in  be  (for  Me),  been.  The  close  relationship  existing  between  the 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  is  seen  in  the  following  comparative  forms ;  eV-o-i  is 
Homeric,  and  i-vri  Doric: 

SANSKRIT.  GREEK.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 

as-mi  ti-fti  H  HIM  a-m 

as-i  itr-iri  es  ar-t 

as-ti  io-ri  es-t  is 

s-mas  itT-tiiv  for  ecr-^ii  8-umus  ar-e 

«  tha  «<7"T«  es-tis  ar-e 

s-anti  i-vri  for  etr-vri  s-unt  nr-e 

Every  verbal  form  is  thus  made  by  appending  to  the  stem,  or  root,  a  pronominal  ending 
meaning  /,  thou,  he,  etc.  Thus  ml,  seen  in  the  English  me,  means  /.  It  is  retained  in 
as-mi  and  «i-/ni,  but  shortened  to  m  in  s-u-m  and  a->».  TV,  meaning  he,  is  preserved 
in  as-ti  and  ecr-rc,  but  shortened  to  t  in  ex-t  and  lost  in  ix.  The  stem  also  undergoes 
various  changes:  in  Sanskrit  It  is  an,  sometimes  shortened  to  ft;  in  Greek  es,  sometimei 
shortened  to  e ;  in  Latin  es,  sometimes  shortened  to  »,  as  in  Sanskrit ;  in  English  «,  ar, 
vr  is- 


84 


VERBS. 


204.  Sum,  I  am. — STEMS,  es,  fu. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PUBS.  Im>.  PRBS.  IMF.  PBRP.  IND. 

•mi  -•-  ful, 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


es, 
est, 

»T!I  III. 

eras, 
erat, 

er*,« 
eris, 
erit, 

ful. 


fuit, 


SINGULAR. 

I  am, 
thou  art,3 

he  is  ; 

1  was, 
thou  wast,* 
he  was  ; 

I  shall  be* 
thou  wilt  be, 
he  will  be  ; 

I  have  been,6 
thou  hast  been, 

he  has  been  ; 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


IMPERFECT. 


FUTURE. 


PERFECT. 


sum  us, 

estis, 

-Mill 

eraiiiiiM. 

erfttis, 
•TSUI  I 

erimus, 

eritis, 
•  •'inn. 

luinni- 

fuistis, 
fuCrunl, 
fuCre,  . 


we  are, 
you  are, 
they  are. 

we  were, 
you  were, 
they  were. 

we  shall  be, 
you  will  be, 
they  will  be. 

we  have  been, 
you  have  been, 

>  they  have  been. 


I  had  been, 
thou  hadst  been, 
he  had  been  ; 


PLUPEKFECT. 

fueramus,  we  had  been, 
fueratis,     you  had  been, 
f ueraii t,      they  had  been. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 


I ihall  have  been, 
thou  wilt  have  been, 
he  will  have  been  ; 


fuerf mils,  we  shall  have  been, 
fuerttis,  you  will  have  been, 
fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


fueram, 

fueras, 
fuerat, 

fuer*, 

fuerls, 

fuerft, 

1  The  Supine  is  wanting. 

*  Sum  is  for  esum,  eram  for  esam.  Whenever  «  of  the  stem  ex  comes  between  tw< 
vowels,  e  is  dropped,  as  in  gitm,  mint,  or  .1  is  changed  to  r,  as  in  eram,  erO;  see  31,  1. 
The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  endings  which  are  added  to  the  roots  es  and  fu  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  type. 

3  Or  you  are,  and  in  the  Imperfect,  you  were;  thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn 
flMMBM. 

13  In  rerbfi,  final  o,  marked  o,  te  geaeraUy  long. 

»  Or,  Futare,  TvdH  »« ;  r>«rfe«l,  Item  ;  roe  1*7,  note  L 


VERBS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

M 

SINGULAR.                                                                     PLURAL. 

sin», 

sis, 
sit, 

may  I  be,1 
mayst  thou  be,* 
let  him  be,  may  he  be  ; 

imii- 
sltis, 
sint, 

let  us  be, 
be  ye,  may  you  be, 
let  them  be. 

IMPERFECT. 

essem, 

esset, 

I  should  be,1 
thou  wouldst  be, 
he  would  be; 

essent, 

we  should  be, 
you  would  be, 
they  would  la. 

PERFECT. 

fuerim, 

fuerfs, 
fuerit. 

7  may  have  been,1 
thou  mayst  have  been, 
he  may  have  been  ; 

fuerimus. 

fuerttis, 
fuerint, 

we  may  have  been, 
you  may  have  been, 
they  may  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT. 

fuissem 
fuisses, 
fuisset, 

/  should  have  been,             f  uissemns, 
Ihou  wouldst  have  been,       fuissetis, 
In-  would  have  been  ;           f  uissent, 

we  should  have  been, 
you  would  have  been 
they  would  have  been 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pree.    es, 

be  thou, 

este, 

be  ye. 

Fut.     osto, 
est6, 

thou  shalt  be* 
he  shall  be  ;  8 

estote, 

-uiilo. 

ye  shall  be, 
they  shall  be. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.    esse,   to  be. 
Perf.    fulsse,  to  have  been. 
Fut.     futftriiK  esse,4  to  be  about 
to  be. 


Fut.  futfltru*,4  about  to  be. 


1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  beginning  with  e  or  *  are  from  the  stem 
to ;  all  others  from  the  stem  fuf 

2.  BARE  FORMS  :—/orem,  fores,  foret,  forent,  fore,  for  essem,  esslt,  estet, 
essent,  futurus  etme  ;  «iem,  sifts,  siet,  tient,  orfuam,  fuds,  fuat,  fuant,  for  wV», 
Jiff,  sit,  sint. 

1  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II.,  and  remember  that  It  is  ofteu 
best  rendered  by  the  Indicative.  Thus,  rim  may  often  be  rendered  Tom,  and  fuerim,  I 
ii'i  i  >'  been. 

1  Or  be  thou,  or  may  you,  be. 

1  The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pros. ,  or  with  let :  be  thou ;  let  him  be, 

4  Futiiru*  is  declined  like  bonus.    Ho  in  the  Infinitive  :  futiiru*,  a,  nm  tss«. 

*  Es  and/u  are  root*  as  well  as  stems.  As  the  basis  of  this  paradigm  they  are  prop- 
erly xtern*,  but  as  they  are  not  derived  from  mere  primitive  forms,  they  are  In  them- 
nelvei  roott. 


86 


FIRST  CONJUGATION 


FIRST  CONJUGATION  :  A  VERBS. 
205.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,Ilove. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  amO,.1 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PBEB.  IND.  PBES.  Iwr.  PEEK.  IND. 

am6,  amare,  am&Tl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Burnt* 

all  allllll 


SINGULAR.                                                                    PLURAL. 

amfts, 
amat, 

/  love,9 
you  love,* 
he  loves; 

amailius, 
amatis, 
amant, 

we  love, 
you  love, 
they  love. 

IMPERFECT. 

amatmm, 

amalmt, 

/  was  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
he  was  loving  ; 

amabaiiiiis 

amabati*, 
ainabaiit, 

we  were  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
they  were  loving^ 

FUTURE. 

amftbis, 
amftl»it, 

/  shall  love,* 
you  will  love, 
he  will  love  ; 

in  alkiiniis 

iimabitis, 
amabllllt 

we  shall  love, 
you  will  love, 
they  will  love. 

PERFECT. 

amflvl, 
amavistl, 
amftvit, 

I  have  loved,1 
you  have  loved, 
he  has  loved  ; 

amaviiiiiiw, 
ama\islis, 
amavCrnnt, 

we  have  loved, 
you  have  loved, 
€re,  they  have  lovt 

amaveram,  I  had  loved, 


amaverfls, 

ainaver.it, 


you  had  loved, 
he  had  loved; 


PLUPERFECT. 

a  ma  v«'ra  m  11  •»,  we  had  loved, 
a  1 1 1  a  v  «•  i-ji  I  i  s.      you  had  loved, 
amaverant,      they  had  loved, 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 


amaveris, 
amaverit, 


I  shall  have  loved* 
you  will  have  loved, 
he  will  have  loved  ; 


amaverf  mug,  we  shall  have  loved., 
amaverltis,  you  will  have  loved 
amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


1  The  final  a  of  the  stein  disappears  in  am.fi  for  ama-6,  amem,  amfs,  etc.,  for  ama- 
Im,  ama-ls,  etc.  Also  in  the  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir,  etc.; 
p«e  23 ;  27.  Final  o,  marked  o,  is  generally  long. 

*  Or  I  am  loving,  I  do  lovt.    So  in  the  Imperfect,  /  loved,  I  was  loring,  I  did  lov& 
.      *  Or  thou  lovest.    So  in  the  other  tenses,  thou  want  loving^  thou  wilt  love,  etc. 

«  Or  I  will  love     So  in  the  Future  Perfect,  /  shall  have  loved  or  I  will  hav«  loved 

•  Or  I  loved;  see  197,  note  1. 


ACTIVE   VOICE. 


87 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR, 

PLURAL. 

amem, 
<  - 
amet, 

may  I  love,* 
may  you  love, 
lei  him  love  ; 

iiiiieiiiiiN. 
ainetis, 
ameiit, 

let  us  love, 
may  you  love, 
let  them  love. 

imftrem,         I  should  love, 
amftrfis,          you  would  love, 
amftret,  he  would  love  ; 


IMPERFECT. 

amar«»iiiuM,  we  should  love, 

amjlrljtis,  you  would  love, 

amftrent,  they  would  love. 


PERFECT. 


amaverim,      I  may  have  loved,11 
amaverls,        you  may  have  loved, 
am&verit,        he  may  have  loved  ; 


amavertnms,  we  may  have  loved, 
amSverf tis,     you  may  have  loved, 
ainaveriiit,       they  may  have  loved. 


PLUPERFECT. 

amavissem,  I  should  have  loved,  \  &m£vi88&mn8,weshouldhaveloved, 
am&vissCs,  you  would  have  loved,  amavissCtis,  you  would  have  loved, 
amaviswet,  fie  would  have  loved;  \  amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Prrs.  ama,        love  thou ;  ]  amftte, 

Fut.    amfttA,  thou  shall  love, 
amftt6,  he  shall  love  ; 


amant6, 


love  ye. 

ye  shall  love, 

they  shall  love. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  amftre,        to  love. 
Perf.  amavlsse,    to  have  loved. 

Fut.    ;i  mat  ft  r  ii  s '  esse,  /"  be  about 
to  love. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  ;i  i  amli  of  loving, 

Dot.  i    :i  ml  o  for  loving, 

Ace.  <n  :ni<liiiii  loving, 

Abl.  ;un;ni<l«>,  by  loving. 


PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  amftns,4 


Fut.    amatttrns,8  about  to  love. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.   amfttum, 
Abl.   amatfl, 


to  love, 

to  love,  be  loved, 


'  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

*  Often  best  rendered  I  hare  lor&l.    80  In  the  Pluperfect,  I  had  loved ;  B«el90.Il 
»  Decline  like  lonwt,  148. 

•  For  declension,  see  157. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION, 


FIKST   CONJUGATION:   A  VERBS. 
206.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  ama. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PRKS.  IMD.  PKKS.  INF. 

amor,  amarl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

lam  loved. 


PBBF.  IND. 
atnAiiix  sum 


SINGULAR.                                                                   PLURAL. 

amor 

amamur 

amaris,  or  re 

11  Kiiuiiii 

amatur 

in  aiilur 

IMPERFECT. 

I  was  loved. 

amabar 

amabamur 

amabaris,  or  re 

amabamitii 

ninabiltiir 

:inial»:iii<iir 

FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  mil  be  loved 


amftbor 

amftberis,  or  re 
iiniftbittir 


amftbimur 


;i  m  a  It  II  II  <  IIP 


PERFECT. 
I  have  been  loved  or  I  was  loved. 


amatns  sum 
amatus  es 
amatus*  e»t 


amatus  erani 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  had  been  loved. 


am  at  f 
amatl 
amatl  crant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
7  shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 


amatns  erd ' 
amatus  eris 

amatus*  erit 


amatl  erimut* 
amatl  <-ri< is 
amatl  erunt 


rfl,  fulstl,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum,  e«,  etc.:  amdtus  fitl  for  am<itiu 
80  fueram,  futrds,  etc.,  for  tram,  etc. :  also  fuerf),  etc.,  for  erd,  etc. 


PASSIVE  vome. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  loved,  let  him  be  loved.1 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

amer  amemiir 

am€ris,  or  re  ameminl 

AinCtur  amentnr 

IMPERFECT. 

I  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved.1 
amftrer  amareniiir 

amftreris,  or  re  amftreminl 

amftretur  amftrentiir 

PERFECT. 

I  may  have  been  loved,  or  I  have  been  loved.1 
amatns  sim*  amatl 

amatus  sis  amatl 

amatns  sit  amatl  sint 

PLUPERFECT. 

I  should  have  been  loved,  he  would  have  been  loved.1 
amatus  essem' 
amatns  essCs 
amatns  esset 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  amftre,    be  thou  loved ;  \      amftminl,  be  ye  loved. 

Put.    amfttor,  thou  shaft  be  loved, 
am  ft  tor,  he  shall  be  loved  ; 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  amftrl,  to  be  loved. 

Per/,  amatns  esse,*  to  have  been 

loved. 
Put.    a  milt  UIH   Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  loved. 


amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Per/,  amatns,  having  been  loveu. 

Oer?  ainandus,  to  be  loved,  de- 
serving to  be  loved. 


1  Bnt  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  106,  II. 

*  Fuerlm,fueru,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  aim,  »f«,  etc. — 80  t,liafui*t«m,/iii«»f4 
etc.,  for  e**em,  e*»e«,  etc. :  rarely  fuiwt  for  eate. 
»  ffer.  =  Gerundive;  see  2OO,  IV.,  note. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION:   E   VERBS. 
207.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— MoneS,  I  advise. 

VERB  STEM,  mon,  moni ;  PRESENT  STEM,  mone. 


PRES.  IND. 


SINGULAR. 

mone* 

mimes 
monet 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PBES.  INF.  PBKF.  IND. 

monCre,  monul, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
/  advise. 


SUPINE. 
inonitum 


PLURAL. 
.     «~-iiin-i 


monent 


IMPERFECT. 
1  was  advising,  or  /  advised. 


<-l»;i  I 


iiioii«-l»!iii  1 


FUTURE. 
/  thall  or  will  advise. 


<"-l»i- 
«"'l»il 


monul 

monuistl 

monuit 


PERFECT. 
I  have  advised,  or  I  advised. 

monuimus 


monuf  stis 
nionuern  11  1    or  fire 


monueram 
<'i-:i«. 
monuerat 

PLUPKRFECT. 
/  had  advised. 

monue  r  ftmiis 
monuerfttis 
monuerant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  advised. 


monuerd 

monuerts 

monuerit 


raonuerfinns 

mouuerttis 

monuerint 


AVTIVE   VOICE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  advise,  let  him  advise.1 


SINGULAR. 

moneam 

monefts 

moneat 


PLURAL. 
moneamus 


moneant 


IMPERFECT. 
/  should  advite,  lie  would  advise. 

inoneremus 


mon$ret  mon<Brent 

PERFECT. 

I  may  have  advised,  or  I  have  advised.1 
monuerim  nionuerfmus 

inunuerfs  monuerftis 

monuerit  monuerint 

PLUPERFECT. 

I  should  have  advised,  he  would  have  advised* 
monuissem  monuissdiiiiB 


monuisset  monuissent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  mon6,        advise  thou ;  \  monfite,        advise  ye. 


inonCtA,    thou  shaft  advise, 
lie  shall  advise  ; 


Put. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  monCre,       to  advise. 
/'erf.  monulsse,    (o  have  advised. 
l-'ut.    monitaruH  ease,  to  be  altout 
to  advise. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  monendl,        of  advising, 
Dat.  monendd,        for  advising, 
Ace.   monenduni,  advising, 
Abl.    monendO,       by  advising. 


monetote,  ye  shall  advise, 
monent6,    tlt<  >i  shall  advise. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  monCns,        advising. 

Fut.    iniinii  n  TUN   < ill- tut  to  aa'vise 

SUPINE. 


Ace.    iiionit  uiii.  to  advise, 

Abl.   monittt,  to  advise,  be  advised. 


i  Bu»  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196.  II. 

3  The  Pluperfect,  like  the  Perfect,  Is  often  rendered  by  the  Indicative  :  1  had  ad 
riitJ.  you  had  adcUed,  etc. 


J  SECOND   CONJUGATION. 

SECOND   CONJUGATION:   E   VERBS. 
208.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,  7am  advised. 

VERB  STEM,  mon,  moni  ;  PRESENT  STEM,  moiie 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PKKS.  IM>  PRES.  INF.  PBRF.  IMD. 

moneor,  monerl,  monitus  sum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
SINGULAR.  I  am  advised.       pLpRAL> 


moneor 


unm«*ris,  or  re 
monetur 


monemur 

moneminl 
monentnr 


IMPERFECT. 
7  was  advised. 

monebftniiir 
«-l»ari-    or  re  inunebaiuiiil 

monebantnr 
FUTURE. 
/  shall  or  will  be  advised. 


monetoor 
mone1>eri8,  or  re 


nionebinmr 
moneltimiiif 


PERFECT. 

I  have  been  advised,  I  was  advised. 
monitns  sum  '  monitl  sumus 

nioiiitus  es  monitl  «'stis 

inoiiii us  ettt  monitl  suiii 

PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  been  advised. 


nionit us  erum 
monitns  «-rsi«* 
monituci  erat. 


monitl  eramus 
monitl  erjitis 
monitl  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
7  sJtaU  or  will  have  been  advised. 


muni nis  er6  ' 
eris 
erlt 


monitl  4'riiiiu« 
monitl  eritis 
monitl  ernnt 


1  Bee  806,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE    VOICE. 


93 


SINGULAR. 

monear 

moneftris,  or  re 
moneatwr 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  advised,  let  him  be  advised. 

PLURAL. 

moneftmur 
moneftminl 

moneantur 


IMPERFECT. 
/  should  be  advised,  he  would  be  advised. 


mon*rer 
mon*r*ris,  or  re 
moneretur 


monCrCmur 
nn)ii«*r«'tiiinl 
tiionereiitnr 


PERFECT. 
I  may  have  been  advised,  or  I  have  been  advisea. 


monituw 
monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 


raonitl 
monitl  wills 
monitl  »int 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  should  have  been  advised,  ht  would  have  been  advised? 


monitus  essem  ' 

monitug  <•«.»<•«. 
naonitus  esset 


monitl 
monitl 
monitl 


IMPERATIVE. 

Prex.  monCre,     be  thou  advised ;      \  monCininl,  be  ye  advised. 
Fut.    monfitor,  thou  shall  be   ad- 
vised, 
monitor,  he  shall  be  advised  ;  \   monentor,  they  shall  be  *dvised. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  monCrl,  to  be  advised. 

Perf.  monitus  entte,1  to  have  been 

advised. 
Fut.    iiiuiiit ii in  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  advised. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Perf.  monitus,  advised- 

Oer.    monendas,  to  be  advised,  de- 
serving to  be  advised. 


1  See  BO6,  foot-notes. 

*  Or  I  had  b^en  advfted,  yvu  had  "been  advixtd.  etc. 


94 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT  VERBS. 
209.  ACTIVE  VOICE.—  Rego,  I  rule. 

VERB  STEM,  reg  ;  PRESENT  STEM,  rege.1 


PRES.  ISD. 
reg6\ 


<» 

regis 
il 


reg«bam 

rogeba* 
regebat 


regain 

reges 
reget 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  SUTINE. 

regere,  rexl,2  rectum.4 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  rule. 

PLURAL. 

regimnt* 

regitis 
II  ill 

IMPERFECT. 
I  was  ruling,  or  /  ruled. 

regebaimig 
:     «-I»ai  i~ 
regebant 
FUTURE. 
/  sJiatt  or  will  rule. 

regemns 
regCtis 
regent 
PERFECT. 
I  Jiave  ruled,  or  /  ruled. 


i-l  i 

rexit 


rexeram 

rexerftf* 
rexerat 


«•!•<> 

rexeris 
rexerit 


rexistix 

rexerimt,  or  ere 
PLUPERFECT. 
/  had  ruled. 

rcxoramitK 
rexeratis 
rgxerant 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

4-l-IIIIIIM 

rexerftis 
rgxerint 


1  The  characteristic  is  a  variable  vowel— 0,  u,  e,  i :  regfl,  regunt,  regere,  regf  8 ;  Cup 
ius  calls  it  the  thematic  vowel ;  see  Curtius,  I.,  p.  199,  but  on  0,  see  also  Meyer,  441. 
3  See  254;  3O,  33,  1. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


95 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  rule,  let  him  rule.1 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regain  regaining 

a-  reg&tis 

regat  regant 

IMPERFECT. 

I  should  rule,  he  would  rule. 

regerem  regeremui 

regerCs  regerCtis 

regeret  regerent 

PERFECT. 

I  may  have  ruled,  or  I/iave  ruled. 
rexerim 


rgxerit 


PLUPERFECT. 
/should  have  ruled,  he  would  have  ruled. 


IMPERATIVE. 

i  reglte, 


ix-.«-- 

i-.-«-| 


rege,       rule  thou  ; 

Put.    regltA,  t/iou  shall  rule, 
regiti,  /w  shall  rule  ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  regere,    to  rule. 
Perf.  rexiwse,  to  have  ruled. 
/•'«/.    i-i-i't urii«»  esae,  to  be  about 
to  rule. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  regendl,        of  ruling, 

Dot.  regendd,       for  ruling, 

Ace.  regendnm,  ruling, 

Abl.  regendd,       by  ruling. 


rule  ye. 


regitOte,  i/e  shall  rule, 
regwnti,  (hey  shall  ruJe. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pros.  regCns,       ruling. 
Put.    MM-I  n  IMIN,  about  to 

SUPINE. 


Ace.    rSctuni,  to  rule, 

Abl.    rgctft,      to  rule,  be  ruled. 


But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196.  II 


THIRD    CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT   VERBS 
210.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  7am  ruled. 

VEKB  STEM,  reg ;  PRESENT  STEM,  rege.1 


PKKS.  IND 

regor, 


SINGULAR. 

regor 

regeris,  or  re 
regitur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PEES.  INF. 

regl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
7  am  ruled. 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  ruled. 


PEBF.  IND. 

•.mil 


PLURAL. 
reglniur 
reginiinl 
reguittur 


regfibftris,  or  re 
regcbatur 

FUTURE. 

I  dial!  or  will  be  ruled. 
regar 

regCris,  or  re 
regCtur 

PERFECT. 
I  have  been  ruled,  or  I  was  ruled. 


regCbamur 
irgebn  mint 
reg&bantur 


regemur 
regCminl 

regentur 


-IIIH 

rectiiN  eg 
i-Setus  est 


ruHT 

reetl  estis 

rt-otl 


PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  been  ruled. 


rfictus  eriini  * 
rCctus  erfl.8 
erat 


reel u«  er«  * 
r6ctus  eri» 
rSctus  erit 


rccti    era  (i* 
i-ectl  erant 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 

recti  eriiiiiiM 
eritls 
ernnt 


>  B«e  8O9,  foot-note*. 


*  See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE   VOWS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  ruled,  let  him  be  ruled. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


97 


regar 

regftris,  or  re 
regfttur 


reg&mur 
regain  in! 
regantur 


regerer 
reger«rls,  or  re 
regeretur 


IMPERFECT. 
I  should  be  ruled,  he  would  be  ruled. 

regerfimur 


regerfiminl 
regerentur 


PERFECT. 

I  may  have  been  ruled,  or  I  have  been  ruled. 
recta*  sim  '  rectl  slums 

r6ct«B  si*  rSctl  sltis 

r6ctu«  sit  r6ctl  slut 

PLUPERFECT. 

Ithould  have  been  ruled,  he  would  have  been  ruled. 
rectos  egsem  '  rSctl 

11-  essCci  rSctl 

ii* 


rSctl  eftsent 


IMPERAUVK. 

Pra.  regcre,    be  Ihou  ruled;  \  regiminl,  be  ye  ruled. 

Fut.    regltor,  thou  tthalt  be  ruled, 
regitor,  fie  shall  be  ruled  ; 


INFINITIVE. 

Pre*.  regl,  to  be  ruled. 

Per/.  i6ct«»   esse,1   to  have   been 

ruled. 
Fut.    rectum  Irl,  to  be  about  to  be 

ruled. 


reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 

P>RTICIPLE. 
Perf.  rfictnw,  ruled. 

Qer.    regendus,  to  be  ruled,  de- 
serving to  be  ruled. 


1  Bee  306,  foot-notes. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH   CONJUGATION  :   I  VERBS 
.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio,  I  hear. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  audl. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PEES.  Inn.  PKKS.  INF.  PERF.  IND. 

audid,  audlre,  audlvl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

/  liear. 


StJPINB. 

audit  it IIB 


SINGULAR. 

audio 

aud'is 
audit 


PLURAL. 

audliniis 
audltis 
iiini 


IMPERFECT. 
Twos  liearing,  or  I  heard. 


audiClmm 


FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  will  hear. 


audiaiu 

:iii(li«— 

audiet 


audTvi 

audlvistl 

audTvil 


audient 
PERFECT. 
I  have  heard,  or  /  Jieard. 

audTvimiiH 


aiidn  «'rn  ii  I  ,  or 


audlveram 
audlveraw 

uiidu  era! 


audlverd 

audlverls 

audlverit 


PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  heard. 


audiverftti?* 
audivernnt 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  sJiatt  or  will  have  heard. 

audlverfnms 

audivei-ftis 

audlverint 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  hear,  let  him  hear.1 


SINOUI.AR. 

iani 

audifts 
audiat 


PLURAL. 
audi&mus 

;iudi:itis 
audiant 


IMPERFECT. 
/  should  hear,  he  would  hear. 


audfrem 

audlrfcs 
audlret 


audlrCiims 

audiiM't iw 
audlrcnt 


PERFECT. 
/  ma;/  have  heard,  or  1  have  heard. 


audlverim 

audlverfs 

audlverit 


audlverfunis 
audlverftis 

audlveriiit 


PLUPERFECT. 

7  fi/iould  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 
audivissem 


audTvixsent 
IMPERATIVE. 

Preg.  audl,        hear  thou ;  \  audlte,         hear  ye. 

Ful.    audi  to,  thou  xhalt  hear,  audl  tote,    ye  shall  hear, 

audlt6,  he  shall  hear  ;  audiiintO,  the//  shall  hear. 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  audl  re,         to  hear. 
Perf.  audlviMMe,    tn  have  heard. 
Put.    audltfkriiH  e«»e,  to  be  about 
to  hear. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  audiendl,         of  hearing, 

Dat.  audiendo,        for  hearing, 

Ace.  a  in  I  i<> IM|  ii  m.   liearina, 

Abl.  audiendo,        6^  Jiearing. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  audiCnw,      hearing. 
Fuf.    auilil nrii>,  ahoul  to  hea* 

SUPINE. 


Ace.    audit  11111,  to  hear, 

Abl.    audltn,       to  hear,  be  heard 


1  But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  190,  II. 


100 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION* 


FOURTH   CONJUGATION:    I  VERBS. 
212.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  /  am  heard. 
VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM, 


PBJM.  IND 
audior, 


SINGULAR. 

audior 
audlris,  or 
audltur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
PBBS.  INF. 
audlrl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
7am  heard. 


PBRP.  IND. 
audltus  sum. 


PLURAL. 

audlmnr 
audlminl 
audiuntni> 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  heard. 

ludlfebar  audiebftmur 

audiCbarij*,  or  re  audifibaminl 

audiebalur  audiebantnr 

FUTURE. 

I  shall  or  will  be  heard. 
audiar 


audiCtur 


auditus 
audltiiN  es 
audltus  csl 


audiCmiiiT 

audientur 
PERFECT. 

7  have  been  heard,  or  7  was  heard. 
audltl 

audltl  estis 
audltl  snnt 
PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  been  heard. 

audltus  eram'  audltl  erainns 

audltns  eras  audftl  eratis 

audltus  erat  audltl  erant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

I  shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 

audltus  erd  '  audltl  erimna 


auditns  eris 
audltus  erit 


audltl  eritis 
audltl 


1  See  9O6,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE   VOIVK 


101 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  heard,  let  him  be  heard. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


audiar 

audiaritfi,  or  re 
audiatur 


audiamur 
audiaminl 
audiaiitur 


IMPERFECT. 
7  should  be  heard,  he  would  be  heard. 


audlrer 

audlreris,  or  re 
audlrCtur 


audlremur 
audlrCminl 

audlrentur 


PERFECT. 
7  may  have  been  heard,  or  7  have  been  heard. 


audltus  sim1 
audltus  sis 
audltua  ait 


audltl  slinus 
iiiiilit  i  sltis 
audltl  Hint 


PLUPERFECT. 

I  should  have  been  heard,  he  would  have  been  heard 
audltus  essem  '  audit  I 

audltns  essCs  audltl 

audltus  esset  audltl  esseat 


IMPERATIVE. 

I'rex.  aadlre,     be  thou  heard ;  \    iiudlminl,     be  ye  heard. 

f\U.    auditor,  thou  shaft  be  heard, 


auditor,  he  Khali  be  heard  ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  audlrl,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  audltus  emwe,1   to  have  been 


ainliiiMtor,  they  shall  be  heard. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Perf.  audit  u  8,  heard. 


heard. 

!'vt.    Hudftum  Irl,  f'>  be  about  to  '•    Cfer.    andiendiiM,  /••  be  heard,  de- 
be  heard.  serving  to  be  litard. 


1  See  2O6,  foot-note* 


102 


VERtiti. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF   CONJUGATIONS. 
213.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 
PRESENT   SYSTEM." 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

nm        -o               -as, 

-at  ;                   -amus,            -Stis, 

-ant. 

mon      -eo,             -6s, 

-et  ;                   -emus,            -etis, 

-ent. 

reg        -o               -is, 

-it  ;                    -imus,             -itis, 

-unt. 

aud        -io,             -is, 

-it  ;                    -Imus,             -Itis, 

-hint. 

IMPERFECT. 

am         -fibam,        -abas, 

-abat  ;               -Sbamus,        -abatis, 

-abant. 

mon       -ebam,        -ebas, 

-ebat  ;               -ebamus,        -ebatis, 

-ebant. 

reg        -ebam,        -ebas, 

-ebat  ;               -ebamus,        -ebatis, 

-ebant. 

and        -iebam,       -iebas, 

-iebat  ;              -iebamus,       -iebatis, 

-iebant 

FUTURE. 

am         -abo,           -abis, 

-abit  ;                -abimus,         -abitis, 

-abunt. 

mon      -ebo,          -6bis, 

-ebit  ;                -ebimus,         -ebitis, 

-ebunt. 

reg        -am,            -6s, 

-et  ;                   -Smus,            -etis, 

-ent. 

aud        -lam,           -i6s, 

-iet  ;                 -iemus,          -ietis, 

-ient. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

am        -em,            -§s, 

-et  ;                   -emus,            -etis, 

-ent. 

mon      -earn,          -eas, 

-eat  ;                 -eamus,          -efitis, 

-eant. 

reg        -am,            -as, 

-at  ;                    -am  us,             -at  is, 

-ant. 

aud        -iam,           -ias, 

-iat  ;                  -iamus,           -iatis, 

-iant. 

IMPERFECT. 

am         -arem,         -ares, 

-aret  ;                -Sremus,        -aretis, 

-arent. 

mon       -erem,         -gres, 

-eret  ;                -erSmus,         -eretis, 

-erent. 

reg        -erem,        -eres, 

-eret  ;                -eremus,         -eretis, 

-erent. 

aud        -Irem,         -Ires, 

-Iret  ;                 -Irgmus,         -Iretis, 

-Trent. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERATIVE.            FpTt;RE 

SINGULAR.                  PLURAL. 

SINOULAR.                                                    PLURAL. 

am            -a,           -ate  ; 

-ato,           -ato  ;                 -atote, 

-anto. 

mon          -e,           -Ste  ; 

-eto,           -eto  ;                 -etote, 

-ento. 

reg           -e,           -ite  ; 

-ito,            -ito  ;                  -itote, 

-unto. 

aud          -I,           -Ite  ; 

-Ito,            -Ito  ;                 -Itote, 

-iuntS, 

PRKS.  INFINITIVE. 

PRES.  PARTICIPLE. 

GERUND, 

am                    -are  ; 

-ans; 

-andl. 

mon                  -5re  ; 

-Sns; 

-endl. 

reg                    -ere  ; 

-ens; 

-endl. 

aud                   -Ire  ; 

-iens  ; 

-iendl. 

NOTE.—  Verbs  in  *5  of  Conj. 

III.  have  certain  endings  of  Conj.  IV.;  see  217. 

1  For  the  Pretent  System,  see  222,  I. 


VERBS. 


103 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF   CONJUGATIONS 
214.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT    SYSTEM. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


PRESENT. 

am 

-or, 

-aris 

or  are,1 

-atur  ; 

-amur, 

-aminl, 

-antur. 

mon 

-eor, 

-gris 

ar  gre, 

-etur  ; 

-emur, 

-emini, 

-entur. 

reg 

-or, 

-eris 

or  ere, 

-itur  ; 

-imur, 

-iminl. 

-untur 

aud 

-ior, 

-Iris 

or  Ire, 

-itur  ; 

-imur, 

-Imim, 

•iuntur. 

IMPERFECT. 

am 

-abar, 

-abaris 

or  abare, 

-abatur  ; 

-abamur, 

-abaminl, 

-abantur. 

mon 

-6  bar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare, 

-ebatur  ; 

-ebamur, 

-ebamini, 

-ebantar. 

reg 

-gbar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare, 

-ebatur  ; 

-ebamur, 

-ebamim, 

-ebantur. 

aud 

-i6bar, 

-iebaris  or  iebare, 

-iebatur  ; 

-iebamur, 

-iebaminl, 

-iebani.ur, 

FUTURE. 

am 

-Sbor, 

-aberis 

or  abere, 

-abitur  ; 

-abimur, 

-Sbiminl, 

-abuntur. 

mon 

-6bor, 

-gberis 

or  ebere, 

-ebitur  ; 

-ebimur, 

-ebiminl, 

-gbuntur. 

reg 

-ar, 

-gris 

or  ere, 

-etur  ; 

-emur, 

-emini, 

-entur. 

and 

-iar, 

-igris 

or  igre, 

-ietur  ; 

-iemur, 

-ioniiiii, 

-ientur. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


am 
moo 
reg 
aud 

am 

mon 
reg 
aud 

-er, 
-ear, 
-ar, 
-iar, 

-arer, 
-erer, 
-erer, 
-Irer, 

-Sris 
-earis 
-aris 
-iaris 

-argris 
-Srgris 
-ereris 
-Ir6ris 

or  6  re, 
or  eare, 
or  are, 
or  iare, 

or  argre, 
or  6rSre, 
or  erere, 
or  Irgre, 

PRESENT. 
-gtur  ; 
-eatur; 
-atur  ; 
-iatur  ; 

IMPERFECT. 
-aretur  ; 
-gretur  ; 
-eretur  ; 
-Iretur  ; 

-emur, 
-eamur, 
-amur, 
-iamur, 

-aremur, 
-eremur, 
-eremur, 
-Iremur, 

-emint, 
-eaminl, 
-aminl, 
-iaminl, 

-argminl, 
-ereminl, 
-ereminl, 
-ireminl, 

•entur. 
-eantur 
-antur. 
-iantur. 

-arentur. 
-erentur. 
-erentur. 
-Irentur. 

PRESENT. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

am       -are,       -aminl ; 

-emini ; 

-iminl ; 


IMPERATIVE. 


mon  -ere, 
reg  -ere, 
aud  -Ire, 


-Iminl ; 


SINOULAR. 

PLURAL. 

-ator, 

-ator  ; 

-antor. 

-gtor, 

-etor  ; 

-entor. 

.itor, 

-itor  ; 

-untor. 

-Itor, 

-Itor  ; 

-i  untor. 

GERUNDIVE. 

-:IIII|M  -. 

-endus. 

-endus. 

-iendus. 

PRES.  INFINITIVE. 

am  -art ; 

mon  -erf; 

reg  -I; 

aud  -Irf ; 

1  In  these  and  the  following  endings  re  takes  the  place  of  ri* :  <irin  or  tire,  i~i/>il?-in  01 
ibi'tre.  Re,  is  formed  from  rix  by  dropping  final  «  and  then  changing  final  i  to  e;  »e« 
8O,  5;  34,  1,  note;  also  337. 


104 


VERBS. 


imav 
monu 
r6x 
audlv 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS 
315.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PERFECT   SYSTEM.' 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PERFECT. 
-is  1 1,         -it ;  -imus, 


audlv 


amftv 
a.onu 
r6x 
audlv 


amav 
monu 
rex 
audlv 


-istls, 


-Crunt,  fife* 


PLUPERFECT. 
-eram,        -eras,        -erat;  -eramus,        -cratis,       -erant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
-ero,          -ens,        -erit;  -enmus,        -erKtis,        «rint 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PERFECT. 
-erim,        -erfo,        -«rit;  -enmus,        -erftis,        -erint 

PLUPERFECT. 
•issem,       -isags,      -isset;         -issemus,       -isggtis,      -issent 

PERFECT  INFINITIVE. 

-isse. 


SUPINE     SYSTEM." 

Fur.  INFINITIVE.       Fur,  PARTICIPLE. 


-iirus  esse. 


-Qrus. 


SUPINE, 
-um,  -ft. 


1  For  the  Perfect  System,  see  222,  II.;  for  the  Supine  System,  222,  III. 

'  From  the  comparative  view  presented  in  213-216  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fmu 
conjugations  ditter  from  each  other  only  in  the  formation  of  the  Principal  Parts  and  U 
the  endings  of  the  Prtxtnt  Syitem.  8e«  also  201,  foot-not*. 


VERBS.  105 

COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
216,  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

SUPINE   SYSTEM. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

unftt   ]  PERFECT- 

I?1    >  -us  sum,      -us  es,          -us  est  ;         -I  '  sumus,     -I  estig,     -I  sunt 

rod 

audit  J 

PLUPERFECT. 

amat     ; 

1    I  -us  eram,     -us  eras,      -us  erat;       -I  eramus,      I  eratis,    -I  erant 
rect 

audit  J 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
-us  eri,        -us  eris,       -us  erit  ;        -I  erimus,      -I  eritis,     -I  erunt. 


amat 

1 


audtt 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PERFECT. 
js  aim,       -us  sis,       -us  sit  ;         -I  slmus,        -'  sltis,       -I  «int. 


PLUPERFECT. 
amat 

1      -us  essem,   -us  essgs,   -us  esset  :     -I  cssdnus.    -I  essStis,   -I  esaetit 
rect 

audit 

INFINITIVE. 
amat   "I    PERFECT.  FUTUBK. 


-usesse. 

audit    j 

PERFECT  PARTICIPLE. 

amat 
monit 
rect 
audit   J 


In  the  plural,  -UK  becomes  -i :  amtit-1  *innu»,  etc. 


106  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

217.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the  Present 
Indicative  in  id,  ior,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation.     They 
are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the  Fourth  wherever  those  end- 
ings have  two  successive  vowels.     These  verbs  are  — 

1.  Gapid,  to  take ;  cupio,  to  desire ;  facid,  to  make  ;  fodid,  to  dig  ;  fugid, 
to  flee  ;  jacio,  to  throw ;  parid,  to  bear ;  quatid,  to  shake  ;  rapid,  to  seize ', 
sapid,  to  be  wise,  with  their  compounds. 

2.  The  compunods  of  the  obsolete  verbs,  lacio,  to  entice,  and  spccid,1  to 
look  ;  allicid,  elicio,  illicid,  pellicid,  etc. ;  aspicw,  conspicid,  etc. 

3.  The  Deponent  Verbs :  gradior,  to  go ;  morior,  to  die  ;  patior,  to  suffer ; 
see  231. 

218.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Capio,  I  take. 

VERB  STEM,  cap ;  PRESENT  STEM,  cape.9 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  IND.  PRKS.  INF.  PEKF.  IND.  SUPINB. 

capid,  capere,  cepi,  captum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

capio,  capis,  capit ;  |       capimus,  capitis,  cajiiunt. 

IMPERFECT. 
capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat ;  |       capiebamus,  -iebfitis,  iebant. 

FUTURE. 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet ;  |       capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 

PERFECT. 
cepi,  -isti,  -it  ;  I       cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt,  or  ere. 

PLUPERFECT. 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ;  |       ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
ceperS,  -erls,  -erit ;  |       ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
capiam,  -ias,  -iat ;  |       capiiimus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperem,  -eres,  -eret ;  |       capereinus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

PERFECT. 
cCperim,--erts,  -erit ;  |       cepenmus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

PLUPERFECT. 
cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ;  |       ce.i»issenius,  -issetis,  -issent. 

1  Spectit  occurs,  but  is  exceedingly  rare. 
z  With  variable  vowel  —  e.  i.,  cape,  vapi. 


VERBS  IN  10. 
IMPERATIVE. 


10? 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  cape; 

Fut,    capito, 
capito ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres,  capere. 
Perf.  cSpisse. 
Fut.    captflrus  esse. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  capiendl, 

Dai.  capiendo, 

Ace.  capiendum, 

Abl.  capiendo. 


PLURAL, 
capite. 

capitote, 
capiunto. 

PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  capiSns. 

Put.    captQrus. 
SUPINE. 


Ace.    cap  turn, 
Abl.     captQ. 


219.  PASSIVE  VOIC'E  — Capior,  7am  taken. 


PRINCIPAI.,  PARTS. 

PRES.  INP.  PRES.  IWF. 

capior,  cap!, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


PEKF.  IND 
captus  sum 


SINGULAR. 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ; 


PLURAL. 

I    capimur,  capiminT,  capiuntur. 

IMPERFECT. 
capiSbar,  -i^baris,  -ieb&tur ;          |    capiSbamur,  -iebaminT,  -iSbantur 

FUTURE. 

|    capiSmur,  -ieminl,  -ientur. 

PERFECT. 

|    captl  -Minus,  estis,  sunt. 
PLUPERFECT. 

|    captl  erauius,  eratis,  eratat. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit ;  |    captl  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


capiar,  -igris,  -igtur; 
captus  sum,  es,  eat ; 
capias  erara,  eras,  erat ; 


108  VERBAL  INFLECTIONS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.  ri.I'RAL. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ;  |     capiamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur;  |    caperemur,  -ereminl,  -erentur 

PERFECT. 
captjte  sim,  sis,  sit ;  j     captl  slmus,  sitis,  .-int. 

PLUPERFECT. 
captus  essem,  esses,  esset ;  |    capt!  essgmus,  essgtis,  essent. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  capere;  |  capiminl. 

Put.    capitor, 

capitor ;  1  capiuator. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  capl. 

Per/,  captus  ease. 

Put.    captuin  Irl. 


PARTICIPLE. 


Per/,  captus. 
Fut.    capiendus. 


VERBAL   INFLECTIONS. 

220.  The  PRINCIPAL   PARTS  are  formed  iu  the  four  conjuga 
tions  with  the  following  endings,  including  the  characteristic  vow 
els,  a,  §,  e,  I  : 

CONJ.  I.  6,        are,       avi.        Stum, 

ami,     amare,  amavl,     amiitum,  to  love. 

CONJ.  II.    In  a  few  verbs :           e8,  ere,  e vl,  etum, 

d6le6,  delere,  delevi,  deletnm,  to  destroy. 

In  most  verbs:             e6,  ere,  ul,  itum, 

moneo,  mongre,  tnonul,  monitum,  to  advite. 

CONJ.  III.  In  consonant  stems :        6,         ere,         si,          turn, 

carpo,  carpere,    carpal,     carptum,  to  pluck. 

In  vowel  stems:  6,         ere,  I,          turn, 

acu6,    acuere,      acul,      acutum,  to  sharper.* 

CONJ.  IV.  15,         Ire,       IvI,        Itum, 

audio,     audlre,  audlvl,     audltum,  to  hear. 

221.  COMPOUNDS  of  verbs  with  dissyllabic  Supines  generally 
change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming  the  principal  parts : 

I.  When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i  for  e  of  the  simple  verb : 


VEKJSAL  IXJfLEUTWNb.  109 

1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e  : ' 

reg6,  regere,  rexl,  rectum,  to  rule, 

dl-rig6,  dlrigere,          dlrexl,  dlrectum,          to  direct. 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e : ' 

tene6,  tenere,  tenui,  tentum,  to  hold. 

de-tine6,          detinere,          detinul,          detentum,          to  detain. 

II.    When  the  Present  of  the  compound  lias  i  for  a  of  the  simple  verb  : 

1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect,  and 
the  Supine  takes  e,1  sometimes  a: 

capi6,  capere,  c£pl»  captum,  to  take. 

ac-cipi6,          accipere,         accept,          acceptum,         to  accept. 

2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i  and  the  Supine  takes  e : ' 

rapiS,  rapere,  rapul,  raptum,  to  seize. 

dl-ripio,  dlripere,  dlripul,          dlreptum,          to  tear  asunder. 

NOTB.— For  Reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255,  I.,  4;  other  peculiarities  of 
compounds  will  be  noticed  under  the  separate  conjugations. 

222.  All  the  forms  of  any  regular  verb  arrange  themselves  in 
three  distinct  groups  or  systems  : 

I.  The  PRESENT  SYSTEM,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as  its  basis, 
comprises — 

1.  The  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative — Active  and  Passive. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive— Active  and  Passive. 

3.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle. 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

NOTE. — These  parts  a-e  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem,  found  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  Active  by  dropping  the  ending  re:  amare,  present  stem 
AMI;  monire,  MONK;  regere,  RKOE;  audirc,  AUDI. 

II.  The  PERFECT  SYSTEM,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  as 
its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  Voice — 

1.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 
8.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

NOTE. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  found  in  the 
Perfect  Indicative  Active,  by  dropping  I :  amdvl,  perfect  stem  AMAV  ; 
monui,  MONP. 

III.  The  SUPINE  SYSTEM,  with  the  Supine  as  its  basis,  comprises— 

1  Th«  favorite  vowel  before  <r,  or  two  or  more  consonants ;  gee  24,  1. 


110 


SYNOPSIS   OF  CONJUGATION. 


1.  The  Supines  in  urn  and  u,  the  former  of  which  with  Irl  forms  th« 
Future  Infinitive  Passive. 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles,  the  former  of 
which  with  esse  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive,  and  the  latter  of  which 
with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  sum  forms  in  the  Passive  those 
tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to  the  Perfect  System. 

NOTE. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem,  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um :  amatum,  supine  stem  AMAT  ;  moniturn,  MONIT. 

SYNOPSIS   OF  CONJUGATION 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 
223.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,Ilove. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
am&,        amare,         amavi,         amatum. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  ama. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  amo 
Imp.   amabam 
Put.    amabo 


Perf.  amavf 
Plup.  amaveram 
P.P.  amavero 


Fut. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amem 
arnarem 


IMPEB. 

ama 


INFINITIVE. 

amare 


amato 
Gerund,  amandl,  d5,  etc. 

3.  PERFECT  STSTEM  ;  STEM,  amav. 

amftverim  amavisse 

amavissem 

4.  SCPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  amat. 

|    amaturus  esse 
Supine,  amatum,  amatu. 


PARTirnPLK. 

amans 


amaturus 


224.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
amor,         amari,         amatus  sum. 


Prts.  amor 

Imp.    am  aba  r 
Fut.    amSbor 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  ama. 


amer 
amarer 


amare 


am  art 


amator 
Gerundive,  amaudus. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


Ill 


INDICATIVE. 


Perf.  amatus  sum 
Plup.  amatus  eram 
F.  P.  amfttus  ero 
Put. 


3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  ainCit. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amatus  sim 
amatus  essem 


INFINITIVE. 

amatus  esse 


amatum  In 


amatus 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 
225.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I  advise. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
monere,  monui,  monitum. 


mone6, 


Pres.  inoiu-o 
Imp.  monSbam 
Fvt.    iiioiiebu 


Perf.  monui 
Plup.  monueram 
F.  P.  monuero 


Put. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  mon£. 


moneam 
monSrem 


mone 


mongre 


inongns 


monSto 
Gerund,  monendl,  d6,  etc. 

3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  monu. 

monuerim  monuisae 

monuissem 


4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  montt. 
|  |  |  moniturus  esse  |  monituruc 

Supine,  monitum,  raonitQ. 


226.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,  /  am  advised. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
moneor,  mongri,  monitus  sum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  numS. 
mongre 


Pre*.  moneor 
///,/'.  monfibar 
J'*u(.    mongbor 


Perf.  monitus  sum 
Plup.  monitus  eram 
F.  P.  monitus  ero 
Pitt. 


monear 
monSrer 

monStor 
Gerundive,  monendus. 

8.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  monit. 


monitus  sim 
monitus  essem 


monitus  esse 


monitum  IrT 


monituB 


SYNOPSIS   OF  CONJUGATION. 


227.  ACTIVE 
reg6, 


INDICATIVE. 


Pres.  rego 
Imp,    regebam 
Put.    regam 


Perf.  rgxl 
Plup.  rSxeram 
F.  P.  rSxero 


Fut. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

VOICE.— Rego,  I  rule. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
regere,  rexi,  rectum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  rege. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  IMPERATIVE.          INFINITIVE. 


regam 
regerem 


rege 

regito 
Gerund,  regendl,  do,  etc. 


regere 


PARTICIPLE. 

!     regeus 


3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  rex. 


rSxerim 
rexissem 


rgxisse 


4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  red. 

\  |  rScturus  esse  j    rectum; 

Supine,  rSctum,  rectu. 


228.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  I  am  ruled. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
regor,  regi>  rectus  sum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  rege. 


Prex.  regor 
Imp.   reg§bar 
Fut.    regar 


Perf.  rSctus  sum 
Plup.  rSctus  eram 
F.  P.  rSctus  ero 
Fut. 


regar 
regerer 


regere 


regl 


regitor 
Gerundive,  regendus. 

3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  rict. 
rectus  sim 


rSctus  essem 


rSctus  esse 


Irt 


rSctua 


SYNOPSIS   0V  CONJUGATION. 


113 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 
229.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio,  /  hear. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
audire,  audlvi,  auditum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audi. 

•F 

audire 
audlto 


audio, 


INDICATIVE. 


Pres.  audio 
Imp.   au  dig  bam 
Fut.    audiam 


BPBJlTHOTmt. 

audiam 
audlrem 


IMPBK 

audi 


PARTICIPLE 

audieus 


Gerund,  audiendl,  d6,  etc. 
3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audlv. 


Perf.  audlvl 
Plup.  audlveram 
F.  P.  audlverS 


Fut. 


audlverim 
audlvissem 


audlviase 


4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audit. 
\  |  I  audlturus  ease  I  audjturus 

Supint,  aiidltuiu,  audltu. 


230.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  /  am  heard. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
audior,  audiri,  audit  us  sum. 


Pres.  audior 
Imp.   audiebar 
Fut.     audiar 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audi. 

audiar  audire  audiri 

audlrer 

auditor 
Gerundive,  audiendus 

8.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  audit. 


Perf.  audltus  sura 
Plup.  audltus  eram 
F.  P.  audltus  ero 
Fut. 


audltus  sim 
audltus  essem 


audltus  ease 


audltum  Irl 


audltue 


114 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 


DEPONENT    VERBS. 

231.  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the  Passive 
Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.     But — 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification  ;  sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle :  hortandus,  to  be  exhorted  ;  expertus,  tried. 

3.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active  form 
is  generally  used. 

NOTE.— The  synopsis  of  a  single  example  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  peculiarities 
of  Deponent  Verbs. 

232.  Hortor,  I  exhort. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  horta. 


INDICATIVE. 


Pres.  hortor ' 
Imp.  hortabar 
Fut.    hortabor 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

horter 
hortarer 


hortare 


INFINITIVE. 

hortari 


Gerund,  hortandl. 


hortator 
Gerundive,  hortandus. 


Perf.  hortatus  sum 
Plup.  hortatus  eram 
F.  P.  hortatus  ero 
Fut. 


3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  hortat. 


hortatus  sim 
hortatus  essem 


hortatus  esse 


hortaturus  esse 


PABTICIPLB. 
hortans 


hortatus 


hortaturus 


Supine,  hortatum,  hortatu. 

NOTE. — For  the  Principal  Parts  of  Deponent  Verbs  in  the  other  conjugations,  see 
268,  283,  and  288.  Prom  these  Principal  Parts  the  pupil,  by  the  aid  of  the  paradigms 
already  learned,  will  be  able  to  inflect  any  Deponent  Verb. 

PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

233.  The  ACTIVE  PEEIPHEASTIC  CONJUGATION,  formed 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  sum,  de- 
notes an  intended  or  future  action: 


1  The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers  :  hortor,  hor- 
tdris,  hortdtur,  horttlmur,  hortdmini,  hortantur.  All  the  forms  in  this  synopsis  have 
the  active  meaning.  /  exhort,  I  was  exhorting,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundive,  which  has 
the  passive  force,  dexerving  to  be  exhorted,  to  be  eashorted.  The  Gerund  ire.  as  it  is 
passive  in  meaning,  cannot  be  used  in  intransitive  Deponent  Verbs,  except  in  un  imper- 
sonal tenie ;  see  3O1.  1 . 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 


115 


Amaturus  sum,  /  am  about  to  love. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  amaturus  sum  * 
Imp.   amaturus  eraiu 
Fut.    amaturus  ero 
Perf.  amaturus  ful 
Plup.  amaturus  fueram 
F.  P.  amaturus  f  uero ' 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus  sim 
amaturus  essem 

amaturus  fuerim 
amaturus  fuissem 


INFINITIVE. 

amaturus  ease 
amaturus  fuisse 


234.  The  PASSIVE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION,  formed 
by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  sum,  denotes  necessity  or 

duty. 

Amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved.* 


Prez.  amandus  sum 
Imp.    amandus  eram 
Fut.    amandus  ero 
Perf.  amandus  fui 
Plup.  amandus  fueram 
F.  P.  amandus  fuero 


amandus  sim 
amandus  essem 

amandus  fuerim 
amandus  fuissem 


amandus  ease 
amandus  fuisse 


NOTE. — The  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  includes  all 
forms  compounded  of  participles  with  mm  ;  but  as  the  Pres  Part,  with  sum  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Pres.  Ind.  (amans  e#t  —  amat),  and  is  accordingly  seldom  used,  and  as  the 
Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense,  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation, 
the  term  Periphrastic  is  generally  limited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 


PECULIARITIES  IN   CONJUGATION. 

235.  Perfects  in  Svi,  evi,  ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before 
s  and  r,  and  sometimes  before  t.  Thus — 

A  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  Si :  amUvisR  (amaistl),  amdstl , 
amdveram  (amaeram),  amaram  ;  am&vme  (amaisse),  amOsse  ;  amdvit  (ama- 
it),  amat. 

E  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  S :  n&vl  (to  spin),  n&visti  (neisti) 
nesti  ;  nSvSrunl  (negrunt),  nlruni. 

I-I  and  I-i  become  I :  audivistt  (audiistl),  audlsll  ,  audlviasem  (audiis 
oCin),  audissem  ;  audivil  (audiit),  audit. 

1.  Perfects  in  ivi  sometimes  drop  v  in  any  of  their  forms,  but  generally 
without  contraction,8  except  before  s:  audivi,  audii,  a-udiit,  auditram ;  audi- 
fiati,  audiisti  or  audisti. 


1  The  periphrastic  forms  are  Inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  nnmbert: 
amdturus  sum,  ««,  t»t.  The  Kut.  Perf.  is  rare.  2  Or,  /  deserve  (ought)  to  be  Isroed. 

'Then  in  proxe  the  first  i  retains  quantity  and  accent:  audl'-i,  audl'-it.  Se« 
Seelmann.  p.  »1 


116  PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 

3.  Perfects  in  dvt.—  The  perfects  of  nOsci,  to  know,  and  movei,  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  «  and  suffer  contraction  before  r  and  s :  ndvisti,  ndsti. 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xl  sometimes  drop  Is,  w,  or  sis :  scrlpsistl,  scripstl ; 
dixisse,  dixe  /  accessistis,  accestis. 

236.  The  ending  Sre  for  erunt  in  the  Perfect  is  com- 
mon in  Livy  and  the  poets,  but  rare  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

NOTB.— The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.    In  poetry  erwnt  occurs. 

237.  R«  for  ris  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Person  of  the  Passive  is 
rare  in  the  Present  Indicative,  but  common  in  the  other  tenses. 

238.  Die,  due,  fac,  and  fer,  for  dice,  duce,  face,  and  fere,  are  the 
Imperatives  of  dice,  ducb,  facift,  and  ferS,  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 

NOTE  1. — Diet,  dvce,  and  face  occur  In  poetry. 

NOTE  2.— Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  otfad6,  which  change  a 
into  i :  conjlce. 

239.  Undus  and  undl  for  endus  and  etutl  occur  as  the  endings  of  the 
Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Conj.  III.  and  IV.,  especially  after  i:  faciundus, 
from  fati8,  to  make ;  dlcundus,  from  died,  to  say. 

240.  ANCIENT  AND  RARE  FORMS. — Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of  an- 
tiquity or  solemnity.     Thus  forms  in — 

1.  Ibam  for  isbam,  in  the  Imperfect  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV. :  scibam  for 
sciebam.     See  Imperfect  of  eft,  to  go,  295. 

2.  Ibo,  Ibor,  for  tarn,  iar,  in  the  Future  of  Conj.  IV. :  servlbfi  for  ser 
viam  ;  opperlbor  for  opperiar.     See  Future  of  eS,  295. 

8.  im  for  am  or  em,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. :  edim,  edls,  etc.,  for  edam,  edos, 
etc. ;  duim  (from  duS,  for  do),  for  dem. — In  sim,  velim,  nolim,  malim  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending. 

4.  assd,  §ss6,  and  sd,  in  the  Future  Perfect,  and  Sssim,  fissim,  and 
sim,  in  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  of  Conj.  I.,  II.,  III. :  fax&  (facs8)  for 
fecerft l  (from  facio)  \  faxim  for  fecerim l  ;  ausim  for  ausus  sim  (for  ause- 
rim,  from  audeo).     Rare  examples  are :  levasafi  for  levdverS  ;  prohibSsai  for 
prohibuerd  ;  jussd  for  jusserd  ;  capsfi  for  ceperb  ;  0x6  for  laerb  ;  occteit  for 
ocdderit ;  taxis  for  tetigeris. 

5.  t6  and  mind  for  tor,  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Future  Imperative,  Passive  and  Deponent :  arbitral^,  arbi- 
traminO  for  arbitrator  ;  utunto  for  Utuntor. 

6.  ier  for  I  in  the  Present  Passive  Infinitive  :  amdrier  for  amarl ;  wdi- 
rier  for  vidSrl. 


Remember  that  r  in  er6  and  erim  was  originally  n ;  see  31,  1 ;  3O4,  foot-noU  9. 


ANALYSIS   OF    VERBAL  ENDINGS.  117 

ANALYSIS    OF    VERBAL    ENDINGS. 

241.  The  endings  which  are  appended  to  the  stems  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain  three  distinct 
elements : 

1.  The  TENSE-SIGN  :  ba  in  ama-ba-tn,  reffi-bO-s. 

2.  The  MOOD- VOWEL  :  a  in  mone-cl-s,  reg-O-s. 

3.  The  PERSONAL  ENDING  :  a  in  mone-d-s,  reg-n-s. 

I.  TENSE- SIGNS. 

242.  The  Present .  is  without  any  tense-sign :  amd-s.     So  also 
the  Future  '  hi  Conjugations  III.  and  IV. 

243.  In  the  other  tense-forms  of  all  regular  verbs,  the  tense-sign 
is  found  in  the  auxiliary  with  which  these  forms  are  all  compounded : 

AmO-bam*  arnctv-eram  ;  amd-b&,  amSv-erS  ;  monS-bam,  monu-eram. 

II.  MOOD-SIGNS. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the  Mood. 

245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a  long  vowel — a,  5,*  or  I4 — before 
the  Personal  Endings: 

Mone-d-mus,  mone-d-lis,  am-3-mus,  am-S-tis,  s-l-mus,  s-l-tis. 

NOTE.— This  vowel  la  shortened  before  final  m  and  t.  and  generally  in  the  Perfect 
before  «,  mun,  and  tin .  moneam,  amet,  sit,fueri«,  amdverbnus,  amdverlti*. 

1  This  Future  is  in  form  a  Present  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  full  the 
force  of  the  Future  Indicative;  see  foot-note  4  below. 

'*  Sam  and  warn,  are  both  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  Imperfect,  the  former  from  the  stem 
bfiu,  the  old  form  of  fu  in  /M-?,  and  the  latter  from  the  stem  e*;  the  former  added  to  the 
Present  stem  forms  the  Imperfect,  the  latter  added  to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Pluper- 
fect. Bf>  and  trfi  are  Future  forms,  the  former  from  bhu,  the  latter  from  en  ;  the  former 
added  to  the  Present  stem  forms  the  Future  in  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the  latter  added 
to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Future  Perfect.  In  the  Subjunctive  the  tense-forms,  axcept 
the  Present,  are  compounded  with  Subjunctive  tense-forms  from  es;  thus,  erem  in  reg- 
erern  is  for  e»em,  the  old  form  of  essem ;  trim  in  reoK-erim  is  for  «#im  =  aim,  and  issem 
in  rip-intern  is  for  essem ;  thus  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  xn/n  added  U 
the  Perfect  stem  form  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3  This  i?  comes  from  a-l,  of  which  the  ?  alone  is  the  true  Mood-Sign. 

4  The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods— the  Subjunctivt 
with  the  sign  »?,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  ?,  sometimes  contained  in  2  for  a-i. 
Thus:  Subjunctive,  mone-d-mu«,  audi-d-Us;  Optative,  s-l-mus,  rexer-i-Us,  am-e-mu» 
for  ama-l-mus,  reger-e-s  for  regera-l-s.    The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forma,  originally 
distinct,  have  in  the  Latin  been  blended  into  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are 
used  without  any  difference  of  meaning.     Thus  the  Mood  in  mone-<~i-mus,  a  Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  am-e-mu«,  an  Optative  form.    The  First  Person 
Singular  of  Futures  in  am—regam,  audiam,  etc.— is  in  form  a  Subjunctive,  while  the 
other  Persons,  rtgeit.  et,  etc.,  audiet,  ft,  etc.,  are  in  form  Optatives. 


118 


PERSONAL  ENDINU8. 


246.  The  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  its  Personal  Endings? 
gee  247,  3. 

HI.  PERSONAL  ENDINGS. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancient  pronom- 
inal stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pronouns  in  Eng 
Ush.     They  are  as  follows-. 


PBKSOW.           ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

MKA.NUW. 

Singular.* 

First                m 

r 

/ 

Second             s 

ris 

thou,  you 

Third              t 

tur 

lie,  s/ie,  it 

Plural'' 

Mrst                mus 

mur 

we 

Second              as 

mini* 

U'»4 

Third              nt 

ntur 

they 

EXAMPLES. 

ainaba-m 

amaba-r 

reg6 

rego-r 

amaba-s 

amaba-ris 

regi-s 

rege-rls 

ttinfiba-t 

amaba-tur 

regi-t 

regi-tur 

ttinaba-mus 

amaba-mur 

regi-mus 

regi-mui 

amaba-tis 

amaba-minl 

regi-tis 

regi-min 

amaba-nt 

amaba-ntur 

regu-nt 

regu-ntu 

1.  OMITTED. — In  the  Present,4  Perfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Ind.  of  all 
the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Future  Ind.  of  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the 
ending  TO  does  not  appear.     In  these  forms  the  First  Person  ends  in  5:6 
am6,  amtibo,  amcivero  ;  except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  ?.•'  amdvl. 

2.  The  endings  of  the  Perfect  Active  are  peculiar.     They  are  the  same 
as  in  ful  : 

1  In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  each— (1)  in  the  Active  Voice  one 
pronominal  stem,  m,  I;  «,  thou,  you;  t,  he;  and  (21  in  the  Passive  two  such  stems,  one 
denoting  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive  Voice :  thus,  in  the  ending  tur,  t  (tu) 
denotes  the  person,  and  r,  the  voice.  /?  of  the  first  person  stands  for  in-r. 

*  In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each— (1)  in  the  Active  two  pronominal  stems : 
mu-s  =  m  (mu)  and  «,  I  and  you,  1.  e.,  we ;  tig  =  t  (the  original  form  for  «,  thou.  as  seen 
in  tft,  thou)  and  «,  =  s  and  «,  thou  and  thou,  i.  e.,  you;  nt  =  n  and  t,  he  and  he,  1.  e.,  they ; 
»ml  (2)  in  the  Passive  three  such  stems,  the  third  denoting  the  Passive  Voice :  thus  in 
ntur,  nt  (ntu)  denotes  the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

*  Mini  was  not  originally  a  Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a  Passive  Participle; 
not  otherwise  used  In  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  (/xevoc.).    Amdmini,  originally  amami- 
nl  f.gtis,  means  you  are  loved,  as  amati  e«tis  means  you  have  been  loved. 

4  Except  in  num,  I  am,  and  inquarn,  I  say. 

8  The  origin  of  this  final  6  is  uncertain.  Curtius  regards  It  as  simply  the  thematic 
rowel,  but  Meyer  recognizes  in  it  a  suffix  combined  with  the  thematic  vowel;  see  Cur- 
tlus,  Verbnm,  I.,  pp.  199,  200;  Meyer,  p.  849. 

*  Probably  a  part  of  the  stem ;  but  see  Curtius,  Verbum,  II..  p.  173 ;  Paplllon,  pp.  194- 
196 ;  also  two  papers  by  the  author,  on  the  Formation  of  the  Tenses  for  Completed  Actiol 
•n  the  Latin  Finite  Verb;  Transactions  of  the  Am.  Phil.  Assoc..  1874  and  1873. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 

SIKGULAR.  PLUBAL. 

Fvrtt  Pers.  fii-I »  fu-i-mus 

Second  fu-is-tl  fu-is-tis 

TMrd  fu-i-t  fu-eru-nt  or  ere 

?.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  the  following  Personal  Endings : 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLTRAL. 

SlNGfLAR. 

PLVBAL. 

Pres.  Second  Pars. 

—  a 

te 

re 

mini 

Put.    Second 

t6 

tote 

tor 

Third 

t6 

nt6 

tor 

ntor 

248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  are  formed 
with  the  following  endings: 

ACTTVK.  PASSIVB. 

In/lnitive  Present  re  (ere)       .  rt  (ert),  I 

Perfect  isse  us  esse 

Future  Qrus  esse  urn  Irl 

Participle  Present  ns 

Future  ftrus 
Perfect  n» 

Gerundive  ndu» 

Gerund  ndl 

ine  HIM,  Q 


FORMATION   OF   STEMS. 

249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem. 

I.   PRESENT  STEM. 

250.  The  Present  Stem,  found  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Active 
by  dropping  re,  is  generally  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem  in  the  First 
and  in  the  Fourth  Conjugations,   and  sometimes  in  the  Second. 
Thus,  nmd,  dele,  and  mull  *  are  both  Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

1  ,)/  is  omitted  In  the  first  person,  and  /;.  an  ancient  form  of «?,  x.  Is  used  in  the  sec- 
Mid.  Otherwise  the  endings  themselves  are  regular,  but  in  the  second  person  t>  and  tig 
are  preceded  by  ?*,  and  grunt  In  fu-frunt  is  for  esurtt.  the  full  form  for  sunt.  Thus 
fu-frunt  is  a  compound  of fu  and  emint  for  Mint.  Fti-iiiHs,  in  like  manner,  may  be  a 
yimpound  of  fu  and  inti»  for  enfit,  and  /«-/«<?,  of  fu  and  MJ  for  e#ti  for  ex. 

*  In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  endings  te  and  re 
•re  shortened  from  tin  and  rig  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping  «  and  changing  linal  /  into 
e ;  see  24,  1,  note.     In  the  Future,  tft  of  the  second  person  corresponds  to  t'i  of  the  Per 
feet  Ind.;  <<5  and  ntfi  of  the  third  person  to  t  and  nt.     Tor  and  ntor  add  /•  to  tft  and  ntft 
Tot«  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 

*  The  final  vowels  are  generally  explained  as  derived  from  aja,  which  became,  in 
Doqj.  I.,  <y'»,  shortened  to  6  In  am-6,  and  to  a  in  the  other  forms,  as  am-d-mus:  in 


ISO  FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 

251.  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem, 
is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following  methods  : 

1.  By  adding  a  short  vowel,  called  the  Thematic  vowel : ' 

reg6 ;  Stem,  reg ;  Present  Stem,  rege ;  to  rule. 

can6 ;  "     can ;  cane ;  to  sing. 

2.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  n,  so,  or  t : 

•in5 ;  Stem,  si ;  Present  Stem,  sine  ;  to  permit. 

apernd ;          "     sper,  spre ;  sperne ;  to  spurn. 

temn6 ;  •     tern ;  temne ;  to  despite. 

veteraso6 ;      "     vetera ;  veterasce ;  to  grow  old. 

creseo ;  "     ore ;  cresce ;  to  increase. 

plectd;  "     pleo;  plecte;  to  braid. 

3.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  i  or  j  : 

capio ;         Stem,  cap ;  Present  Sten>,,  cap-je,  cape ;  *     to  take. 

pell6 ;  pel ;  pel-je,  pelle ; »    to  drive. 

curro ;  "     our;  cur-je,  curre;8    to  run. 

4.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  and  inserting  n — changed  to  m  before 
a  labial,  b  or  p  ;  see  33,  3 : 

Stem,  frag ;  Present  Stem,  frange  ;  to  break. 

1     fua ;  ftmae ;  to  pour. 

u     rap;  rumpe;  tonurst. 

5.  By  adding  fi,  8,  or  I: 

Juvd:  Stem,  juv ;  Present  Stem,  luva ;  to  assist. 

videft;  "    vid;  vide;  to  see. 

hauriA ;  u    hanr/orhaus;  "  hauri ;  to  draw. 

0.  By  reduplicating  the  stem  : 

sistfl ;  Stem,  eta ;  Present  Stem,  sista,'  siste ;        to  place. 

ser6 ;  "     sa ;  sisa,  sise,  sere ;  *  to  sow. 

NOTE. — Sometimes  two  of  these  methods  are  united  in  the  same  stem  : 

glgno  ;         Stem,  gen ;  Present  Stem,  gigene,  gigne  ; B  to  beget. 

nanclacor ;      "     nao ;  nanolsce ;  •          to  obtain. 


ConJ.  II.,  ejo,  shortened  to  «a  in  del-ed,  and  to  e  in  dtl-e-mv«;  and  in  Conj.  IV.,  ijo, 
ihortened  to  if>  in  awl -in.  to  hi  in  aml-iv-nt.  and  to  i  in  aud-i-mim ;  see  335,  foot-note. 

1  This  Thematic  vowel,  originally  a,  is  generally  weakened  to  e  or  t :  reg-e-re,  reg-i- 
mu»;  but  sometimes  it  appears  to  take  the  form  of  6  or  M  :  reg-6,  reg-u-nt.  There  is, 
However,  some  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  S  in  such  cases ;  s«e 
847, 1,  foot-note  5 

7  With  variable  Thematic  vowel :  see  foot-note  1,  above.  ./,  pronounced  .</.  assimi- 
lated to  I  and  r  in  pelle  and  curre,  as  in  the  Greek  /SaAAu,  from  £aA-;<o.  See  Curtins. 
Verbum,  I.,  p.  800. 

3  For  stista  for  stasta.    The  e  in  tiste  takes  the  several  forms  of  the  Thematic  vowel. 

4  8  changed  to  r  between  two  vowels;  see  31,  1.     The  vowel  a  of  the  stem  is 
weakened  to  t  before  #,  but  to  e  before  r ;  see  84,  1  and  2. 

s  Bedoplication  with  Thematic  vowel 
•  ^V  inserted  and  i-xc-e  added. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS.  121 

n.  PERFECT  STEMS. 

252.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v-. 

trad  (a-6),  amavl ;    Stem,  am& ;    Perfect  Stem,  amav ;  to  love. 

deleo,         delevl;       u     dele;  delev;  to  destroy. 

audio,          audlvi ;       "      audl ;  audiv ;  to  hear. 

1.  In  verbs  in  u6,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  aa  the  Verb  Stem : 
acu6,  acul ;       Stem,  aou ;     Perfect  Stem,  acu ;  to  sharpen, 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a  few  others,  form  the  Perfect 
Stem  by  adding  u: 

a!6,  aim ;  Stem,  al ;  Perfect  Stem,  alu ;  to  nowri&h. 

frem6,  fremul;       "     from;  frerau;  forage. 

teneo,  tenul ;         "     ten ;  tenu ;  to  hold. 

doce6,  docul;        "     doo;  doou;  to  teach. 

254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  s : 

reg6,  rexl ;       Stem,  reg ;     Pa-feet  Stem,  rex  *  r5gs ;         to  rule. 

sortbo,        sortpsl ;      "     scrtb ;  scrips  =  scribe ;  to  write. 

carpo,         carpal ;      u     carp ;  carps ;  to  pluck. 

255.  A  few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  without 
any  suffix  whatever.     But  of  these — 

I.  Some  reduplicate  the  stem : ' 
cand,       oecinl ;       Stan,  can ;     Perfect  Stem,  cecin ;  to  sing. 

1.  The  REDUPLICATION  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 
of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e — generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if  that  vowel  is  i,  I,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e ;  see  examples  under 
871, 1,  and  272, 1. 

2.  The  STKH-VOWU,  a  IB  generally  weakened  to  t,  sometimes  to  e  :  cad6, 
cecidt  (for  eecadi),  to  fall. 

8.  In  VERBS  BEGINNING  WITH  Sp  OB  St,  the  reduplication  retains  both  con- 
sonants, but  the  stem  drops  the  « .•  spondt6,  spopondi  (for  xpospondl),  to  prom- 
ise ;  »td,  iMl  (for  ttesti),  to  stand. 

4.  In  COMPOUNDS  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  do,  to  give ;  *W,  to  stand ;  disco,  to  learn ;  poirf,  tc 
demand  ;  and  sometimes  in  the  compounds  of  curr6,  to  run ;  re-spondeo,  r«- 
spondl,  to  answer;  circum-dd,  circvm-dedl ;  circum-M,  circum-stetl,  to  en- 
circle. The  compounds  of  dd  which  are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  < 
of  the  reduplication  into  i  :  ad-do,  ad-didi  (for  ad-dedi),  to  add  ;  see  259, 1. 

II.  Some  lengthen  the  Stem-Vowel : ' 

em6,         6ml ;  Stem,  em ;  Perfect  Stem,   em ;          to  buy. 

ag5p         egl ;  '     ag ;  eg ;  to  drive. 

ab-ig6,     ab-f gl ;  "     abig ;  '*  abeg ;       to  drive  away. 

NOTE.— The  stem- vowels  a  and  (in  compounds)  i  generally  become  f,  as  In  agi  and 


5e«liiit8,  271,  1,  and  278,1.  »  8«e  Itata,  271,2;  272,2. 


122  CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged : ' 

led,  lol ;  Stem,  lo ;  Perfect  Stem,  to ;  to  strike. 

viso,        vlsl ;  "     vis ;  "  vis ;          to  vitii. 

NOTB. — Of  the  few  verbs  belonging  to  thin  class,  nearly  all  have  the  item-syllable  long 

III.  SUPINE  STEM. 
256.  The  Supine  Stem  adds  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  : 


amo,s 

amatum  ; 

Stem,  ama;         81 

ipine  Stem,  amat: 

to  love. 

dlc6, 

dictum  ; 

"     die; 

"           diet; 

to  say. 

mone6, 

raonitum  ; 

"     moni;8 

"            inonit  ; 

to  advise. 

dele6, 

deletum  ; 

"    dele  ; 

"         delet; 

to  destroy. 

audi5, 

auditum  ; 

"     audi; 

audit; 

to  hear. 

carp6, 

carptum  ; 

"     carp; 

carpt; 

to  pluck. 

1.  Stems  in  d  and  t,  most  stems  in  1  and  r,  and  a  few  others,  change 
t  into  s : 


laedd,  laesum;  Stem,  laed;  Supine  Stem,  laes;«  to  hurt. 

verto,  versnm ;  "     vert ;                               vere ; «  to  turn. 

verro,  versum;  "     verr;                   "           vers;  to  brush. 

fal!6,  falsum;  "     fall;                     "           fals;  to  deceive. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS.* 
FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  SL :  PERFECT  iisr  vt  OR  ul. 

257.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  5re,  Svl,  atum. r 

These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.     The  follow- 
ing are  examples : 

dono  dOnare  dOnftvI  dSnatum,  to  bestow. 

honSro  honorare  hon6ravl  honOratum,          to  honor. 

libero  Uberare  Hberavl  llberatum,  to  free.  • 

noinino  nominare  nominavi  nominatum,         to  name. 

pugno  pugnare  pugnavl  pugnatum,  to  fight. 

spero  sperare  speravl  speratum,  to  hope. 

NOTE  1. — Pdtd,  are,  <i«f,  atum,  to  drink,  has  also  a  supine,  potum. 

NOTE  2. —  Cendtus,  from  cenft,  •  to  dine,'  unAjiiratti*.  (romjiirri,  '  to  swear,'  are  active 
in  meaning,  having  dined,  etc.     Pi.lux.  from  piitn,  is  also  sometimes  active  in  meaning 

'  See  list,  872,  3.  »  For  amafi.  '  See  8O7. 

4  Laes  is  for  laedt,  plau*  (orplaudt,  ci*  for  vidt,  rem  for  rertt.  fals  (or  fa  III,  vers 
for  verrt ;  see  35,  3,  2),  note. 

*  The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregularities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.     In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is  first 
given  with  a  few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which  deviate 
from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  comi>ounds  as  deviate  in  uny  important  particular 
from  their  simple  verbs. 

•  It  is  deemed  unnecessary  longer  to  retain  the  double  mark  ^  over  final  o  in  verbs. 
The  pupil  has  now  learned  that  this  vowel  may  be  short,  though  it  is  generally  long  in 
the  Augustan  poets. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


123 


258.  Principal  Parts 


orepd 
cub6 
domo 
eneco 

frico 


plica 

seed 
sonO 
tonO 
vet6 


crepare 
cubare 
domare 
enecare 

fricare 
micare 
plioare 

secare 

sonare 
tonare 

vetare 


in  —  0,  are, 

crepui 
cubul 
domul 

enecu! 

fricul 

iiiicui 
j  plicavl 
(  plicui 
secul 
sonul 
tonul 
vetul 

ul,  itum.1 

crepitum,2  > 
cubitum,3 
domitum, 
enectum,4 
j  frictum,    [ 
(  fricfttum,  J 

to  creak, 
to  recline, 
to  tame, 
to  kill. 

to  rub. 
to  glitter. 
to  fold. 

to  cut. 
to  sound, 
to  thunder 
to  forbid. 

plicatum,  | 
plicitum,6  J 
sectum,7 
sonitum,1 

vetitum, 

CLASS  II. — PERFECT  IN  i, 

259.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  I,  turn. 

1.    WITH    REDUPLICATION.8 

dare  dedl  datum, 

stare  stetl  statum, 

a  WITH  LKNQTHENKD  STEM-VOWEL.* 


dO 
stO 


juvO 

lava 


juvar 
lavare 


jttvl 

lavi 


jtttum,1 
(  lavatum,*  i 

•<   lillltUlll.        V 

(  lOturo,       ) 


to  give, 
to  stand. 


to  assist, 
to  wash. 


NOTE  1. — In  dfi  the  ch*raoteri8tlo  a  !»  short  by  exception : ' '  dabam,  dabo,  darem, 
etc.  Four  compounds  of  (to—oircumdo,  pesmtmdfl,  ajtisdn,  and  ven-umdo — are  conju- 
gated like  the  simple  verb  the  rest  are  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (271).  The  basis  of 
•everal  of  these  conipounut  ,s  do,  'to  place,1  originally  distinct  from  do,  'to  give.' 

NOTE  2.— Compounds  Oi  »tf>  generally  want  the  Supine.  In  the  Perfect  they  have 
nM.i,  if  the  first  part  Is  a  dissyllable,  otherwise  xtiti  :  adsto,  adtfdre,  adttitl.  Dteto  and 
esttto  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 


1  Note  deviations  In  the  Supine. 

1  Inerepd,  tire,  u>  (</»<),  ituin  (utum)\  diecrtpo,  dr«,  ui  (AvV), . 

9  Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  aceumbO,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.;  see  273. 

4  The  simple  ntcn  Is  regular,  and  even  in  the  compound  the  forms  in  uvi  and  iitnm 
Hxjur. 

•  DimicO,  (ire,  avl  («?),  atum  ;  emicd,  are,  ul,  atum. 

•  Dv^pltcO,  multiplier,  replied,  and  aupplicn,  are  regular :  are,  tivl,  fitvm. 

7  Seen  has  participle  aec&tfirus :  sano,  sonatiirus ;  jwvt),  juwtiiruH,  iii  compounds 
»lso  jfitiirus.    Rfsom'i  has  Perfect  retondvi^  Most  compounds  of  «or<ri  want  the  gupine 

8  See  255,  I.  and  II. 

•  In  poetry,  Innn  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. :  lavfi,  Invert,  Mvl,  etc. 

10  This  short  vowel  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  do  is  a  root-verb  formed  directly  from 
the  root  da  without  the  suffix  from  which  the  a  is  derived  in  other  verbs  It  this  conju 
gallon;  gee  250,  foot-note. 


134  CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

260.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 

In  this  conjugation  deponent  verbs  are  entirely  regular. 

cOnor  cOnart  cOnatus  sum,  to  endeavor 

hortor  hortarl  hortatus  sum,  to  exhort. 

mlror  mlrart  mlrfltus  sum,  to  admire. 

SECOND   CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  e :  PERFECT  IN  vf  OR  ul. 

281.  Principal  Parts  in — eO,  ere,  evl,  etum. 
These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 

dele6  delSre  delevl  deletum,  to  destroy. 

com  pled  complete  complSvI  completum,1  to  fill. 

fle6  fl6re  flfivl  fletum,  to  weep. 

ueO  n6re  nevl  netiim,1  to  spin. 

262.  Principal  Parts  in — eO,  Sre,  ul,  itum. 
These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.     The 
following  are  examples  : 

debeo  debere  debul  debitum,  to  owe. 

habe&  habere  babul  habitum,  to  have. 

moneS  mongre  monul  monitum,  to  advise. 

noceS  noc6re  nocul  nocitum,  to  hurt. 

pared  pftrgre  pfirul  paritum,  to  obey. 

placed  placSre  placul  placitum,  to  please. 

taced  tac6re  tacul  taciturn,  to  be  silent. 

NOTE  1.— Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  In  ui  want  the  Supine.    The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important : 


candeo,  to  thine. 
egeO,       to  want. 
emineO,  to  stand  forth. 
flOreO,     to  bloom. 
frondeO,  to  bear  leaves. 
horreC,  to  shudder. 
lateO,      to  be  hid. 


madeO,  to  be  wet.  \  sorbeO,  to  swallow. 

niteo,  to  ghine.  ,  splende<%  to  shine. 

ole6,  to  smell.  studeO,  to  study. 

palleO,  to  be  pale.  |  stupeO,  to  be  amazed. 

pateO,  to  be  open.  \  timeo,  tojear. 

rubeo,  to  be  red.  i  torpeO,  to  be  torpid. 

sileO,  to  be  silent.  \  vire6,  to  be  green. 


NOTE  2. — Some  verbs,  derived  mostly  from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect 
and  Supine.     The  following  are  the  most  important: 


albeO,     to  be  white. 
ealveo,  to  be  bald. 
caneO,    to  bt  gray. 
flaveo,    to  be  yellow. 


hebeft,       to  be  blunt. 


iininineo,  to  threaten. 


maere6,     to  be  sad. 


umeo,        to  be  moist.          polleO,      to  be  powerful, 


renldeo,    to  slnne. 


lacteO,        to  suck.  I    squaleo,    to  befiUhy. 


1  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  pled  :  eospleO.  impleo,  etc. 
8  To  these  may  be  added  abolefi,  aboltre,  abolevt,  abo/itum, '  to  destroy,'  with  Supinr 
in  itum.    See  also  abolfsco,  277. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


125 


CLASS  II. — STEM  IN  c,  n,  r,  OR  s:  PERFECT  IN  ul.1 

263.  Principal  Parts  hi — eO,  Sre,  ul,  turn  or  sum.3 
These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 
censeo  censgre  cgnsui  cgnsum,8 


doceS 
misceS 

teneS 
torre6 


censgre 
docgre 

miscgre 

tengre 
torrgre 


cgnsul 
docul 

miscul 

tenul 
torrui 


doctum, 
(  mistum, 
(  mlxtum, 

tentum,4 

tostum, 


to  think, 
to  teach. 

to  mix. 

to  hold, 
to  roast. 


CLASS  III. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PERFECT  IN  si  OR  I. 

264.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  si,  turn. 

auged  auggre  auxl  auctum,  to  increase. 

indulges  indulggre  indulsl  indultum,          to  indulge. 

torqueS  torqugre  torsi  tortum,  to  twist. 

265.  Principal  Parts  hi — eo,  5re,  •!,  sum.2 

algeo 
ardeo 

cSnlveo 

frfgeS 

fulgeS 

haereS 

jubeS 

IficeS 

iQgeS 

maneS 

mulgeS 

mulceS 

rldeo 

suadeo 

tergeS 

turgeS 

urges  (u 

NOTE.— deO,  clere,  clvl,  citum,  to  arouse,  has  a  kindred  form,  do,  c>re,  clvl,  cilum, 
from  which  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  Perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the  Fourth 
Conj  prevail,  especially  In  the  sense  of  to  call,  call  forth. 

1  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  ffenerat  List  of  all  verbs  Involving  irregularitiei 
will  be  found  on  page  888. 

'  The  Pretent  Stem  adds  e  ;  see  251,  5.     For  phonetic  change*,  see  33-36. 

5  Participle  oensun  and  cenmtus. — Percfn»efi  wants  Supine  :  recf-nueo  has  r«c?n#um 
and  recenrftum. 

*  In  most  compounds  the  Supine  is  rare. 

*  Poetic,  fulgo,  fulgere,  etc. 

*  The  stem  of  haeren  Is  haft.    The  Present  adds  f  and  changes  u  to  r  between  tw< 
rowels.    In  haetl  and  haenum,  i  standing  for  *#  or  n(  is  not  changed. 

*  In  compounds  sometime*  mulctum. 


ardgre 
cSnlvgre 

frfggre 
fulggre 
haergre 
jubgre 
Ittcgre 
luggre 
mangre 
mulggre 
mulcgre 
rfdgre 
suadgre 
terggre 
turggre 

nrcrBrp 

arsl 
(  cOnlvI  ) 
1  cSnlxI  $ 
f  rtxl  (rare) 
fulsl 
haesl 
jussl 
10x1 
luxl 
mans! 
mulsl 
mulsl 
rtsl 
Mifi-i 
tersl 
tursl  (rare) 

nrsT 

arsiim, 

to  burn, 
to  wink  at. 

to  be  cold. 
to  shine. 
to  stick. 
to  order, 
to  thine, 
to  mourn. 
to  remain. 
to  milk, 
to  soothe, 
to  laugh, 
to  advise, 
to  wipe, 
to  swell. 

In  ryffjts 

5 

haesum,8 
jussum, 

mansum, 
mulsum, 
mulsum,' 
rtsum, 
suasum, 
tersum, 

126 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS. 


266.  Principal  Parts  in — eO,  Sre,  I,  turn. 

WITH  LENGTHENED  STEM- VOWEL. 


cared 

cavfire             cavl                         cautum, 

to  bewam 

faved 
foveo 
moveo 
paveo 
voveo 

favgre             favt                         fautum, 
fovSre             fOvt                         fotum, 
movgre             mOvI                         mOtum, 

to  favor, 
to  cherish, 
to  move, 
to  fear, 
to  vow. 

vovgre             v5vl                         v5tum, 

267. 

Principal  Parts  in  —  ee,  Sre,  I,  sum. 

1.  WITH  REDUPLICATION.' 

mordeo 
pendeo 
spondeo 

tondeo 

mordere          momordl                  morsum, 
pendgre           pependl                   pensum, 
spondere         spopondl                  spflnsum, 
tondgre            totondl                    tonsuni, 

to  bite, 
to  hang, 
to  promise, 
to  shew. 

2.  WITH  LENGTHENED  STEM-VOWEL. 

seded 
video 

sedere             s6dl                          sessum,' 
vidfire              vldl                          vteum, 

to  tit. 
to  see 

conlvefi 
ferveo 
langueO 
liqueo 
prandec 
etrfdeS 

8.  WITH  UNCHANGED  STEM. 

to  wink  at. 
to  boil, 
to  be  languid, 
to  be  liquid, 
to  dine, 
to  creak. 

languere          languT                      

prandere         prandl                      prftnsum,4 
strtdere           strtdl                          — 

268. 

DEPONENT  VERBS. 

1.  Regular. 

liceor 
mereor 
pollioeor 

tueor 
rereor 

licSrl                      licitus  sum, 
merSrf                   meritus  sum, 
pollic§ri                 pollicitus  sum, 
(  tuitus  sum,  ) 
tu6rt                    ]  tutus  sum,  f 
yerfiri                     veritus  sum, 

to  bid. 
to  deservt. 
to  promise. 

to  protect. 
to  fear. 

2.  Irregular. 

fateor 
medeor 

misereor 
reor 

faterl                     fassus  sum,6 

to  confess. 
to  cure. 

to  pity. 
to  think. 

misereri              \  ™s™*™  8um.  [ 
I  misertus  sum,  J 

rerl                         ratus  sum, 

1  For  reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255, 1.,  4. 

1  So  ctrcumstdea  and  superseded.    Other  compounds  thus :  atsidto,  ere, 
emttssum ;  but  disrideo,  praesldeO,  and  refidet,  want  8upine. 

*  Observe  that  the  supine  sttm  is  wanting  in  most  of  these  verbs. 
4  Participle,  prantus,  in  an  active  senio,  having  dined. 

•  Ofmflteor,  eri,  oonfe&isuA :  so  prqfttear. 


THIRD    CONJUGATION. 


127 


audeo 

gauded 
soled 


3.  Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
audere  ausus  sum,  to  dare. 


gaudere 
solere 


ausus  sum, 
gavisus  sum, 
solitus  sum, 


to  rejoice. 

to  be  accustomed 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 
NOT*.— This  conjugation  contains  tiie primitive  verbs  of  the  language;  see  335 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PERFECT  IN  si  OR  I 

269.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  si,  turn. 
These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 
consonant.     The  following  are  examples  : ' 

to  pluck, 
to  gird, 
to  gay. 
to  lead, 
io  extinguish, 
to  carry, 
to  marry, 
to  rule, 
to  take, 
to  draw, 
to  burn, 
to  carry. 
to  live. 


carpo 

carpere 

carpsl 

carptum,* 

ciugo 

cingere 

ciuxl  (gsl) 

cinctum, 

itfc6 

dlcere 

dM 

dictum, 

dfic<5 

ducere 

dfixl 

ductum, 

exstinguo 

exstinguere 

exstinxl 

exstinctum,5 

gero 

gerere 

gessl 

gestum, 

nii  bo 

nubere 

mips! 

nuptum, 

reg5 

regere 

rexl 

rectum,* 

sumo 

sumere 

sumps! 

sumptum, 

trah6 

trahere 

traxl 

tractum, 

uro 

Qrere 

ussl 

ustum, 

veh6 

vehere 

vSx! 

vectum, 

vlv6 

vivere 

vlxl 

vlctum, 

270. 

Principal  Parts  in  —  0  (or  io),  ere,  si,  sum.1 

(•«•<!,-, 

cSdere 

cessl 

cessum, 

claudd 

claudere 

clausl 

clausum,4 

dlvido 

dlvidere 

dlvlsl 

dlvlsum, 

evado 

fivadere 

8vasl 

evasum,1 

flgo 

flgere 

flxl 

flxum, 

tltvto 

flectere 

flexl 

flexum, 

frend6 

frendere 



j  frSsum,    ) 
}  fressum,  J 

laedd 

laedere 

laesl 

laesum,4 

IfldO 

lOdere 

iQs! 

Ifisnm, 

mitta 

mittere 

mlpi 

missum, 

mergO 

mergere 

mersl 

mersum, 

(  n6xl      ) 

H-'-tu 

nectere 

I  nexul  8  ) 

nexum, 

pect6 

pectere 

p6xl 

pexum, 

to  yield, 
to  close, 
to  divide, 
to  evade, 
to  fasten, 
to  bend. 

to  gnash. 

to  hurt, 
to  play, 
to  send, 
to  dip. 

to  bind 
to  comb. 

1  For  Phonetic  Change*,  see  3O-36. 

*  The  stem-vowel  Is  often  changed  in  compounds:  carpfi,  <tf-eerp/);  rego,  dl-rigo; 
for  this  change,  see  344,  4;  also  221. 

'  So  other  compounds  of  ttinguO  (rare):  ditttlngufi,  etc. 

*  Compounds  of  claudo  have  »  for  au,  con-clf/do ;  those  of  laedfi,  7  for  ««,  il-ttdO , 
Utose  ot'plaurlfi  generally  6  for  au,  etr-pKdo  :  those  otgnaHi>,  en  for  qua,  con-cutii). 

*  80  other  compounds  otvtido.  •  Compounds  take  this  form  in  the  Perfect- 


128 


OJ>'   V£RB& 


plecto 

plectere 

plSrf                plexum, 

to  plant. 

plaudo 

plaudere 

plausl               plausum,1 

to  applaud. 

prem6 

premere 

pressl  *             pressuin, 

to  press. 

quati6 

quatere 

quassl  *             quassum,1 

to  shake. 

spargC 

spargere 

spurs!               sparsum, 

to  scatter. 

I'ado 

rfldere 

rasl                   rasum, 

to  shave. 

rodo 

rOdere 

r6sl                  rosum, 

to  gnaw. 

tergo 

tergere 

tersl                 tersum,1 

to  toipe  off. 

trudo 

trudere 

trfisi                 trusum, 

to  thrust. 

271. 

Principal  Parts 

in  —  0  (or  io),  ere,  I,  turn. 

1. 

WITH  REDUPLICATION. 

abdu 

abdere 

abdidl               ubditum.* 

to  hide. 

cano 

canere 

cecin!               cantum,' 

to  sing. 

crgdo 

cr§dere 

crSdidl             creditum,6 

to  believe. 

i  '    .  ^ 

j  • 

HHirT 

j      !-«*,*, 

Q13CO 

paugo 

QlSCGrG 

pangere 

pepigl               pactum, 

io  i€ant. 
to  bargain. 

pango 

pangere 

|  pauxl               panctum,1  > 
(  peg!                 pactum,     f 

to  fix  in. 

pario 

parere 

peperf              partum,8 

to  bring  forth. 

sist6 

sistere 

stitl                   statum,9 

to  place. 

tango 

tangere 

tetigl                tact  urn,10 

to  touch. 

tendd 

tendere 

(  tentum,10  ) 
tetendl           jtSnsum,    C 

to  stretch. 

tollo 

tollere 

sustull              sublfitum,'1 

to  raise. 

vendo 

vendere 

vSndidl             venditum,' 

to  sell. 

pungu 

pungere 

pupugi              pQnctum,11 

to  prick. 

2.  WITH 

LENGTHENED  STEM-  VOWEL. 

ag6 

agere 

6gl                    actum,18 

to  drive. 

capio 

capere 

c6pl                   captum,14 

to  take. 

emo 

emere 

6ml                   Smptum,1* 

to  buy. 

1  See  page  12T,  foot-note  4. 
a  See  34,  1,  note;  35,  8,  2). 

*  Also  terffef/i  torgere,  etc.;  compounds  take  this  form ;  see  365. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  do  except  those  of  Conjugation  I. ;  see  259,  note  1. 

*  Concino,  ere,  condnui, ;  so  occinv  and  praecinn;  other  compounds  want 

Perfect  and  Supine. 

*  Explained  as  a  compound  of  df> ;  see  dbdo. 

7  Compingo,  ere,  compegt,  eompactum ;  so  also  impingo.  DepangO  wants  Perfect: 
repangO,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

*  Participle,  pariturus:  compounds  are  of  Conjugation  IV. 

*  Compounds  thus :  cfmsistd,  ere,  constiti,  conMtum  ;  but  circttmstetl  also  oceurf . 
*•  Compounds  drop  the  reduplication. 

11  Attollo  and  extollo  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

11  Compounds  thus :  compungo,  ere,  compOnotf,  compftnctum. 

11  So  oircumagO  and  perago  ;  satagO  wants  Perfect  and  Supine.  Other  compound* 
change  a  Into  f  in  the  Present:  abigo,  ere,  abegi,  abactwm;  but  coigo  becomes  cftg<\ 
era,  ooegl,  ooactum,  and  deigo,  diffO,  tre,  degi,  without  Supine.  Prodigo  wants  Supin*, 
and  ambigv,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

14  S«  ttnttcapio ;  other  compounds  thus  :  accipio,  ere,  accept,  aeceptwm. 

16  So  coemo  ;  other  eornpounds  thai :  adimo,  ere,  ademi,  adfrnptum 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


lay 


facia 

fugia 

jacid 
franga 

'ego 

linqud 

scaba 

vinco 

rumpo 

272. 


Jadfl 

caeda 

curra 

fallO 

pared 

pella 

penda 

posed 

tunda 


eda 

fodia 

fundo 


facere 

fugere 

jacere 

frangere 

legere 

linquere 

scabere 

vincere 

rumpere 


f6cl 

fugl 

jecl 

frggl 

legi 

llqul 

scabl 

vlcl 

rupl 


factum,1 

fugitum, 

jactum,8 

fractum,* 

iSctum,4 


vlctum, 
ruptum, 


Principal  Parts*  in  —  0  (or  io),  ere,  I,  gum.* 
1.  WITH  BIDDPLICATION. 


cadere 

caedere 
currere 

cecidl 
cecldl 
cucurrl 

casum,1 
caesum,8 
cursum,9 

fallere 
parcere 
pellere 
pendere 
poecere 

tundere 

fefelll 
pepercl  (parsl) 
pepull 
pependl 
poposcl 

tutudl                • 

falsum,™ 
parsum,11 
pulsum,11 
pSnsum,11 

j  tunsum," 

2.  WITH  LBNOTHENID  STEM-VOWKL. 

edere  Cdl  6suni, 

fadl  fossum, 


fodere 
fnndere 


fadl 


fusum, 


8.  WITH  UNCHANOKD  STEM. 

accenda  accendere        accendl  accSnsum,14 

cflda  cadere  cOdl  cttsum, 


defenda 


defendere        defendl 


dSfSnsum,1*      to  de^ 


to  m&kt. 
to  flee, 
to  throw, 
to  break, 
to  read, 
to  leave, 
to  scratch, 
to  conquer 
to  burst. 


to  fall, 
to  cut. 
to  run. 
to  deceive, 
to  spare, 
to  drive, 
to  weigh. 
to  demana. 

to  beat. 


to  eat. 
to  dig. 
to  pour 


to  kindle, 
to  for 


>rae. 
efend. 


1  PassI  ve  irregular:  f>f),  Jtorl,  foetus  turn. ;  see  294.  So  tatitfaoto  and  compounds 
utfado  with  verbs ;  but  compounds  with  prepositions  thus  :  conjlcio,  cfinflcwe.  cfwfeel. 
c&n/ect*imf  with  regular  Passive,  drnfidor,  onnflci,  cnnfectus  sum. 

I  SuperjaciO  has  jactum.  or  jectum  in  Supine :  compounds  with  monosyllabic  prepo- 
sitions thus:  tihirir,.  abicere,  abjecrt,  abfectwni  ;  see  page  80,  foot-note  1. 

*  Compounds  thus :  cnnfringi),  ere,  cfmfregi,  ofmfr&ctum. 

4  So  compounds,  except  (1)  coltigO,  ere,  colUgl,  coUlctum ;  so  deKgO,  ttigo,  ofMgn—(V- 
dliigo,  ere,  iliUx'i,  diUctum ;  so  intellegfi,  neglego,  though  neglegi  occurs  in  the  Perfect. 
'  Compounds  with  Supine  :  relinquo,  ere,  retlqul,  relief  urn. 

•  For  Phonetic  Changes,  see  30-36. 

7  Ineidfi,  ere,  tncidt,  incusum ;  so  occido  and  recidn ;  other  compounds  want  Supine. 

•  Compounds  thus :  contfdo,  ere,  concMl,  condtum. 

*  ExourrO  and  praecrtrro  generally  retain  the  reduplication :  esecucurrl,  pra«c>unn- 
rt;  other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

10  RefellO,  ere,  refelH.  without  Supine. 

II  Oomparco,  ere,  compare!,  compartum,  also  with  e  tor  a:  oomperoc,  »r*.  »*c. 
Jtnparca  and  reparcn  want  Perfeci  and  Supine. 

'*  Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255, 1.,  4. 

"  Compounds  retain  reduplication,  255,  I.,  4. 

14  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  cando  va&fendo. 


180 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


tindo               findere                fidl  (findl)       fissum, 

to  part. 

Ic6                  Icere                   IcI 

Ictum, 

to  strike. 

mandO            mandere             mandl 

mansum, 

to  chew. 

pandS             pandere              pandl 

(  passum,  | 
(  pfinsum,  f 

to  open. 

( 

i  plnsiturn,    ) 

plnso(pls6)    plnsere            •]  ^-QS 

•j  plstum,       V 

to  pound 

(  P 

(  pmsum,       ) 

prehendo        prehendere,        prehendl         prehensum,1 

to  grasp. 

scando            scandere             scandl 

scansum, 

to  climb. 

scindo            scindere             scidl 

scissum, 

to  rend. 

solvo              solvere               solvi 

solutum* 

to  loose. 

velld               vellere                velll  (vulsl)     vulsum, 

to  pluck  . 

verrS              verrere               verri 

versum, 

to  brush. 

verto              vertere               vertl 

versum,3 

to  turn. 

vls6                vlsere                 vlsi 

vlsum, 

to  vis*t 

volvo              volvere               volvl 

volutum, 

to  roll. 

NOTB  1.  —  Some  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  si  or  I  want  'the  Supine  : 

angO,  ere,  Snxl,                   to  squeeze. 

inetuu.  ere,  I. 

to  fear. 

aiinuo,  ere,  i,                      to  assent. 

pluO,  ere,  I,  or  pluvl, 

to  rain. 

batuu,  ere,  I,                       to  beat. 

ppallfi.  ere,  i, 

to  play  the  fiar; 

blbo,  ere,  1                         to  drink. 

sldo,  ere,  I,4 

to  frit  down. 

congrnO,  ere,  !,                   to  agree. 

ningO.  ere,  nTnsa, 

to  snow. 

ingruO,  ere,  I,                     to  assail. 

stride,  ere,  I, 

to  creak. 

lainbo.  ere,  I.                      to  lick. 

sternn6,  ere,  i, 

to  meeee. 

NOTB  2.  —  Some  verbs  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine  : 

elango,                                 to  clang. 
claudo,                                 to  be  lame. 

hlsco, 
vadO, 

to  gape, 
to  go.* 

fatlsoo,                              to  gape. 

temnd, 

to  despise.* 

gllsco,                               to  grow. 

vergo, 

to  incline. 

CLASS  11.  —  STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :   PERFECT  IN  nl. 


273.  Principal  Parts 
accumbS         accumbere 
aid  alere 


in — 0  (or  iO),  ere,  ul,  itiim, 
accubul  accubitum,'         to  recline. 

alul  J  autum, 


altum 


:•! 


depsO 

depsere    . 

depsul 

\    UCJIMLUIH,     1 

to  knead. 

elicid 

glicere 

Slicul 

elicitum,8 

to  elicit. 

fremO 

fremere 

fremul 

fremitum, 

to  rage. 

gem& 

gemere 

gemul 

gemitum, 

to  groan. 

gign5 

glgnere 

genul 

genitum, 

to  beget. 

mold 

molere 

molul 

molitum, 

to  grind. 

1  Often  written  prendo,  prtndere,  etc. 

•  V  is  here  changed  to  its  corresponding  vowel  u :  sotiifwn  for  solutum. 

1  Compounds  of  de,  prae,  re,  are  generally  deponent  in  the  Present,  Imperfect,  an< 
future. 

4  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  supplied  from  tedeo;  hence  sedl,  u*»um.  So  in  com 
pounds. 

•  S*tfi>ddo,  2  7O. 

•  But  contemns,  ere,  contempti,  conUmptum. 

7  So  other  compounds  otcumbo,  cubd;  see  cubf>,  258. 

<  Other  compounds  of  lacio  thus :  allicio,  al/icere.  ul/fj-l.  allectum 


pined 

plnsere 

\  plnsul 
|  plnsl 

(  plnsitum,  1 
•<  plstum, 
(  pinsum,     ) 

pono 

ponere 

posui 

positum, 

strepo 

strepere 

strepul 

strepitum, 

vomo 

vomere 

vomui 

vomitum, 

THIRD   CONJUGATION.  131 


to  crush. 

to  place, 
to  make  a  noise, 
to  vomit. 

NOTE. — CompescO.  'to  restrain'.;  excetto,1  'to  excel';  furd,  'to  rage';  gterM   'to 
snore ' ;  and  tremo,  '  to  tremble,'  have  the  Perfect  in  ui,  but  want  the  Supine. 

274.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  ui,  turn. 

eolo  colere  colul  cultum,  to  cultivate. 

consulo  cOnsulere  consulul  cOnsultum,  to  consult. 

occulo  occulere  occului  occultum,  to  hide. 

rapid  rapere  rapul  raptum,1  io  snatch. 

serO  serere  serul  sertum,  to  connect. 

texo  texere  texui  textum,  to  weave. 

275.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  ere,  gul,  sum. 

meto  metere  messul  *       messum,          to  reap. 

necto  nectere  j  n      .  >•       nexura,  to  bind. 

CLASS  in. — STEM  IN  A  VOWEL  :   PERFECT  IN  vi  OR  L 

276.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  avl  from  a  stem  in  a : 
pasco4  pascere  pavi  pastum,  to  feed. 

sterno            sternere            stravi           stratum,          to  strew. 
veterasco       veterascere       veteravl       to  grow  old. 

277.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  evl  from  a  stem  in  § : 


abolgsco 
cerno 
crgsco 
quiSsco 
aperno 
suSsco 

abolfiscere 
cernere 
crgscere 
quiSscere 
spernere 
sugscere 

abolSvI 
crfivl 
crSvI 
quiSvI 
sprgvl 
suevl 

abolitum,6 
crfitum, 
cr6tum,' 
quietum, 
sprCtum, 
suCtum, 

to  disappear, 
to  decide, 
to  grow, 
to  rest, 
to  spurn, 
to  become  accwtomed. 

NOTE.— SerO,  serere,  sOvi,  sntum,7  to  tow. 

278.  The  following  verbs  liave  the  Perfect  in  tvi  from  a  stem  in  Ir 


arcess6 

arcessere 

arcfisslvl 

arcCssItum, 

to  call  for. 

capgssd 

capessere 

capSssIv! 

capSssItum, 

to  lay  hold  of. 

cupi6 

cupere 

cuplvl 

cupltum, 

to  desire. 

facSssd 

fac6ssere 

j  facesslvl  / 
j  facSssi     J 

facSsaltum, 

to  make. 

1  Other  compounds  of  ctJIo  want  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  except  percdlfi, 
percull,  perculsum. 

3  Compounds  thus  :  corripio,  corripere,  carripui,  correptum. 

3  The  Perfect  in  sul  seems  to  be  a  double  formation,  *?  enlarged  to  «ul. 

4  The  stem  otpaitcd  is  pa,  p&s ;  tlie  Present  Stem  adds  *c« ,'  see  251,  2. 

*  80  inolencft ;  but  adole«cO  has  Supine  adultum ;   eoroletcfl,  etroletum  ; 
obsotetum. 

•  fncreico  and  ituccretod  want  the  Supine. 

1  Compounds  thus  :  coruterO.  <ym««r«r«,  oonsevl, 


133 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VERBS 


incSsao 

lacesso 

Jino 

nosco 

peto 

quaero 

rudo 

sapio 

sino 

tero 


iru'i'ssi-rc 

j  incSssivI  | 
|  incessl      ] 

lacessere 

lacessivi 

linere 

IM,  I8vl 

noscere 

n5vl 

petere 

petivl 

quaerere 

quaesivl 

rudere 

rudM 

sapere 

saplvi,  sapul 

sinere 

slvl 

terere 

trtvi 

lacfissltum. 

litum, 

nOtum,1 

petltum, 

quaesltum,'" 

rudltum, 


situm, 
tritum, 

279.  Principal  Parts  in  —0,  ere,  I,  turn. 
These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  with  u-stems. 
are  examples : 

acul  acutum, 

argul  argutum, 

imbu!  imbatum, 

minul  minutum, 

rul  rutum, 

statui  statutum, 

tribul  tributum, 


acuo 

arguo 

imbuo 

minuo 

ruo 

statud 

tribuo 


fluxum, 
structum, 


to  attack. 

to  provoke 
to  smear, 
to  know, 
to  ask. 
to  seek. 
to  bray. 
to  taste. 
&  permit, 
to  rub. 


The  following 

to  sharpen, 
to  convict, 
to  imbue, 
to  diminish, 
to  fall, 
to  place, 
to  impart. 

to  flow, 
to  build. 


arguere 

imbuere 

minuere 

ruere 

statuere 

tribuere 

.—Ffaa)  and  struo  have  the  Perfect  in  xi. 
fluo  fluere  fluxi 8 

struo  struere  struxJ 3 

INCHPTIVES. 

280.  Inceptives  end  in  sc6,  and  denote  the  beginning  of 
an  action. 

NOTE. — When  formed  from  verbs,  they  are  called  Verbal  Inceptives,  anc 
when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives<  Denominative  Inceptives. 

281.  Most  VERBAL  INCEPTIVES  want  the  Supine,  but  take  the  Perfect 
of  their  primitives : 

acul 
ami 
calol 

florul         

tepul 

virul          


arescd 

calescC 

flOresco 

tepescO 

viresco 


(vtreo 


acescere 

ftrescere 

cal&scere 

florescere 

tepescere 

virescere 


to  become  sour, 
to  become,  dry. 
to  become  warm, 
to  begin  to  bloom, 
to  become  warm, 
to  become  green. 


NOTE.—  The  following  take  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives: 


concuplscd 
convalesce 

(con,  cupio) 
(con,  Taleff) 

ere 
ere 

concuplvi 
convalul 

concupitum, 
convafitum. 

to  dtsire. 
to  grow  strong. 

exardescS 

(ex,  ardeo) 

ere 

ezarsi 

cxarsuin. 

to  burn. 

inveterasco 

(inveterO) 

ere 

inveteravi 

inveteratum, 

to  grow  old. 

obdormiscO 

(ob,  dormid) 

ere 

obdormlvi 

obdormitum, 

to  fall  asleep. 

revMscO 

(re.  vivff) 

ere 

revM 

revfctum, 

to  revive. 

•cited 

(«ct#) 

ere 

scJvi 

scitom, 

to  enact. 

1  80  IgndscD ;  ugnoscd  and  cognosce  have  itotm  in  Supine,  agnitum ;  dignotcO  »ad 
inUrnoscO  want  Supine. 

'J  Compounds  thus  :  acquire,  ere,  acquittoi,  acqu~i«itwn. 

*  Forjlug-si,  strug-sl,  formed  rot  from  u-Btema,  but  from  consonant-ttKOa, 


THIRD    VOXJVGATION. 


133 


282.  Most  DENOMINATIVE  INCEPTIVES  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine . 


dltesco        (dives),        to  arow  rich. 
dulcescO     (dul<n8\}      to  become  sweet. 
grandescO   (granaut),   to  grow  large. 


mltescd 
mollescO 
puerascO  (jruer)^ 


NOTB. — The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  ui : 


crgbr6sc6                 (ffl 
dfirgsco                    a 
innStescd                  it 
uiacrCsco                   11 
uiaturescO                 n 
ubnmti-sco                 o 
recrudescfl               r 
vilesco                    (c 

283.  DEPON 

amplector             1 
aplscor 
comminiscor 
experglscor 
fatTscor 

fruor 

fungor 
gradior 
Irascor 
labor 
liquor 
loquor 
morior 
nanclscor 
nascor 

nltor 

obllvlscor 
paclscor 
patior 
proficlscor 
queror 
reminlscor 
ringor 
sequor 
ulclscor 
fttor 

voonnr 

reber)                     ere              crfibrul, 
urus)                     ere              durul, 
i,  ndtus)                ere              innotui, 
tacer)                    ere              macrui, 
Atwrui)                 ere               inuturui, 
!>,  mutus)               ere              obm&tui, 
6,  crudits)             ere              recrfldnl, 
'tin)                      ere              yilui, 

ENT  VEKBS. 
amplexus  sum, 
aptus  sum,1 
commentus  sum,2 
ezperrgctus  sum, 

3 

|  fructus  sum,  ) 
(  fruitus  sum,  ) 
functus  sum, 
gressus  sum,4 

lapsus  sum, 

locutus  sum, 
(M,  rare)        mortuus  sum,' 
nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 
natus  sum,6 
\  nlsus  sum,  / 
/  nlxus  sum,  \ 
oblltus  sum, 
pactus  sum, 
passus  sum, 
profectus  sum, 
questus  sum, 

rictus  sum, 
secutus  sum, 
ultus  sum, 
Qsus  sum, 

T                                        

fldo 


Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
ftdere  flsus  sum, 


to  grow  mild, 
to  grow  soft, 
to  become  a  boy. 


to  become  frequent 
to  become  hard, 
to  become  known, 
to  become  lean, 
to  ripen, 
to  grow  dumb, 
to  bleed  afresh, 
to  become  worthiest. 


to  embrace, 
to  obtain, 
to  devise, 
to  awake, 
to  gape. 

to  enjoy. 

to  perform 
to  walk, 
to  be  angr$. 
to  fall, 
to  melt, 
to  speak, 
to  die. 
to  obtain, 
to  be  born. 

to  strive. 

to  forget, 
to  bargain, 
to  suffer, 
to  set  out. 
to  complain, 
to  remember, 
to  growl, 
to  follow, 
to  avenge 
to  use. 
to  eat. 

to  trust. 


1  Adiplteor,  I,  adeptwt  awn  ;  so  indtyiwor. 

»  (Jom-minlscor  la  compounded  of  con,  and  the  obsolete  minfacor; 
wants  the  Perfect. 

'  Dl-f«ti»cor,  >,  de-fetmu  turn. 

*  Compounds  thus  :  aggredior,  7,  aggrettut  turn. 

'  Aforior  La«  future  participle  moriturut;  na»cor.  ndirttiirut 


134  CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS. 

FOURTH   CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  I:  PERFECT  IN  vl. 
284.  Principal  Parts  in— io,  Ire,  IvI,  Itum. 

The  following  are  examples : 

fluio  flnlre  fmivi  flmtuin,  tojinish. 

I'-nii i  lemre  lenlvi  lemtum,  to  alleviate. 

munio  munire  munlvl  munltum,  to  fortify. 

pflnio  punlre  punlvi  punitum,  to  punish. 

scio  scire  sclvl  scltum,  to  know. 

sepeli6  sepellre  sepelivl  sepultum,1  to  bury. 

sitio  sitlre  sitlvi  to  thirst. 

vftgi6  vaglre  vaglvl  to  cry. 

NOTE  1. —  Fis  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect:  audi/i  for  audwl ;  see  )>86,  1. 

NOTE  2. — Desideratives  (338,  HI.) — except  esurio,  ire, ,  Uum ;  nup- 

turio,  ire,  ivi,  and  parturio,  ire,  ivi — want  both  Perfect  and  Supine.  Also  n 
few  others : 


balbutio,         to  stammer. 

caecutio,         to  !>«  blind. 
feriO,  to  strike. 


ferocio,        to  be  fierce. 
gannio,        to  baric. 
ineptio,       to  trifle. 


sag-in.  to  be  wise. 

superbiO,     to  be  proud. 
tussio,         to  cough. 


CLASS  II. — STEM  IN  c,  1,  OR  r :  PERFECT  IN  ul. 

285.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  Ire,  ul,  turn. 

amicio          amicire         amicu!  (xi )        amictum,  to  clothe. 

aperio  aperlre          aperui  apertum,  to  open. 

operio  operlre         operuT  opertum,  to  cover. 

salio  salire  salui  (il)  (saltum),4  to  leap. 

CLASS  III. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PERFECT  IN  si  OR  l 

286.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  Ire,  si,  turn. 


farcio 

farcTre 

farsl 

j  fartum,*  \ 
(  farctum,  f 

to  stuff". 

fulcio 

fulclre 

fulsi 

fultum, 

to  prop. 

haurio  4 

haurlre 

hausl 

haustum,  hausum, 

to  draw. 

saepio 

saeplre 

saepsi 

saeptum, 

to  hedge  in. 

sancio 

sanclre 

sanxi 

(  sancltum,  | 
(  sanctum,   | 

to  ratify. 

sarciS 

sarclre 

sarsl 

sartum, 

to  patch. 

vincio 

vincire 

vinxi 

vinctum, 

to  bind. 

1  Supine  irregular. 

*  Compounds  thus:  desilid,  lr«,  ul  (#),  (detultum). 

'  Compounds  thus :  confercio.  Ire,  confers?,  confertum. 

*  The  stem  of  haurio  is  haun.    The  Present  adds  I  and  changes  «  to  r  between  two 
vowela     ID  h/iutl  and  hausum,  x  standing  for  HK  or  at  is  not  changed. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


135 


287.  Principal  Parts  in— io,  Ire,  si,  sum. 


raucio 
sentio 


raucire 
sentire 


rausi 

s6nsl 


rausum, 
sensum, 


NOTE. — The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  *  .• 


comperio 

reperio 

venio 


comperire 

reperlre 

venire 


comperi 

repert 

veni1 


compertutn, 

repertum, 

ventnm, 


288.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 


blandior 

largior 

mention 

mOlior 

partior 

potior s 

sortior 


assentior  * 

experior 

metior 

opperior 

ordior 
orior 


1.  Regular. 

in  blanditus  sum, 

M  largitus  sum, 

In  mentltus  sum, 

Iii  molltus  sum, 

IrT  partltus  sum, 

Irt  potltus  sum, 

M  sortltus  sum, 

2.  Irregular. 

in  assensus  sum, 

M  expertus  sum, 

M  mf-nsiis  sum, 

j  oppertus  sum, 
(  opperltus  sum, 
Irl  5rsus  sum, 

Irl  ortus  sum,4 


to  be  hoarse, 
to  feel. 


to  learn, 
to  find, 
to  come. 


to  flatter, 
to  bestow, 
to  lie. 
to  strive, 
to  divide, 
to  obtain, 
to  draw  lots. 


to  assent. 

to  try. 

to  measure. 

to  await. 

to  begin, 
'to  rise. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

289.  A  few  verbs  which  have  special  irregularities  are 
called  by  way  of  preeminence   Irregular  or  Anomalous 
Verbs.     They  are  sum,  edd,  fero,  volo,  fid,  eo,  qued,  and 
their  compounds. 

290.  Sum,  'I  am,'  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conjugation  of  sum  has  been  already  given  (204);  its  numerous 
compounds — absumf  adxum,  de.tum,  praesumf  etc. — except  possum  and  prd- 
vww,  are  conjugated  in  the  same  way. 


1  With  lengthened  stem-vowel. 

a  In  the  Present  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  forms  of  Conjugation  III.  occur. 

*  Compounded  of  ad  and  nentio  ;  see  287. 

4  Participle,  orituru*.— Present  Indicative,  Conjugation  III.,  orerin,  oritur.  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive,  or'irer  or  orerer. — So  compounds,  but  aciorior  follows  Conjugation  IV. 

'  Alifum  and  praexum,  like  possum,  have  Present  Participles,  absent  and  praesens. 
used  as  adjectives,  ab»ent*pre»ent. 


136  IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

n.  Possum,  posse,  potui,  to  be  able. 

INDICATIVE. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  possum,  potes,  potest  ;        possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

Imp.   poteram  ;  '  poteramus. 

Fut.    potero  ;  poterimus. 

Perf.  potui;  potuimus. 

Plup.  potueram  ;  potueramus. 

F.  P.  potuero  ;  potuenmus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  possim,  possls,  possit  ;  posslmus,  possltis,  possint. 

Imp.  possem  ;  possgmus. 

Perf.  potuerim  ;  potuerimus. 

Plup.  potuissem  ;  potuissemus. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  posse.  Pres.  potens  (as  an  adjective). 

Perf.  potuisse. 

NOTE  1.  —  Possum  Is  compounded  of  potit,  '  able,1  and  #MTO,  '  to  be.1    The  parts  ar« 
lometimes  separated,  and  then  potts  is  indeclinable  :  potis  sum,  potis  xumus,  etc. 
.NOTK  2.  —  In  possum  observe  —  " 

1)  That  potis  drops  is,  and  that  t  is  assimilated  before  »:  possum  torpotsum. 

2)  That  the  Perfect  is  potui  not  potfui.'* 

8)  That  posse  and  possem  are  shortened  forms  for  potesse  and  potessem. 

III.  Prosum,  '  I  profit,'  is  compounded  of  jjrd,  prod,  '  for,'  and  sum,  '  to 
be.'  It  retains  d  when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  e  :  prosnm,  prodes, 
prSdest,  etc.  Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  sum. 

291.  EdO,  edere,  edi,  esum,  to  eat. 

This  verb  is  sometimes  regular,  and  sometimes  takes  forms  similar, 
except  in  quantity,8  to  those  of  sum  which  begin  in  es.  Thus  — 

INDICATIVE. 


Pres. 

i 

ed6, 

edis, 
Ss,» 

edit; 

est; 

edimus, 

editis, 

estis. 

edunt. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Imp. 

I 

ederem, 

gssem, 

edergs, 

essgs, 

ederet  ; 
gsset  ; 

ederemus, 

essemus, 

ederetis, 
gssetis, 

ederent. 

esseiit. 

1  Inflected  regularly  through  the  different  persons :  poteram,  pot  eras,  poterat,  eto. 
80  also  in  th«  other  tenses :  potui,  potutett.  etc. 

4  For  old  and  rare  forms,  see  2O4,  2.  Potui  is  probably  a  regular  perfect  in  ul 
from  an  obsolete  verb  potto  or  potto  ;  see  262,  285  j  also  Stolz,  p.  225. 

'  These  forms  have  f  long  before  s,  while  the  correspondingforms  of  sum  have  e  short 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


137 


' 


ede  ; 


Fut. 


Pres. 


6st6; 


IMPERATIVE. 
edite. 

68tCo 

editote, 
estote. 


« 
edunttx 


edere. 


esso. 


MOTE  1.— In  the  PASSIVE,  fittur  for  editwr  and  futetur  for  ederi'tur  also  occur. 

NOTE  2. — FORMS  IN  IH  for  am  occur  In  the  Present  Subjunctive :  edim,  edis,  edit, 
we.,  for  fitiiin.  edds,  edat,  etc. 

NOT*  8.— COMPOUNDS  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  comedo  has  In  the  8u 
pine  comesum  or  comextum. 


292.  Fero, 


ferre,  tuli,  latum, 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 


to  bear. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres.  fero,  fers, 

fert;                             ferimus,  fertis,*  ferunt. 

Imp.   f  erSbain  ;  * 

ferSbftmus. 

Fut.    f  eram  ; 

ferSmus. 

Perf.  tuli; 

tulimus. 

Plup.  tuleram  ; 

tuleramus. 

F.  P.  tuler5  ; 

tulerimus. 

Pres.  feram  ; 

SUBJUNCTIVE.     feramus 

Imp.   f  errem  ; 

ferr§mus.4 

Perf.  tulerim  ; 

tulerimus. 

Plup.  tulissem  ; 

tulissemus. 

Pres.  fer;' 

IMPERATIVE.      ferte 

Fut.    fertd, 

fertOte, 

fert6; 

feruntS. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  ferre.4 

Pres.  ferSns. 

Perf.  tulisse. 
Fut.    Iatuni8  ease. 


Fut.  latQrus. 


1  Bee  page  136,  foot-note  2. 

*  Fer-s,  fer-t,  f#r-tia,  like  e»-t,  cs-tis,  dispense  with  the  usual  thematic  yowel  i 
With  such  vowel  the  forms  would  be  feris,  ferit,  feritis. 

*  Inflect  the  several  tenses  in  full :  ferfbam,  ferebai,  etc. 

4  Ferrem,  etc.,  forfererem,  etc. ;  ferre  torferere  (e  dropped). 

*  Fer  tor  feres  .ferto.  ferte,  fertote,  ferric,  fertw.  without  thematic  yowel 


138 


IRREGULAR    VERBS, 


GERUND. 

&en.  ferendl, 

Dttf.  ferendd, 

dec.  ferendum, 

AM.  ferendO. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.  latum, 
Abl.  latu. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

fwror,  fern,  latus  sum, 

INDICATIVE. 


to  be  born*. 


SINOULAK. 

Pres.  feror,  ferris,  fertur;1 

Imp.  fergbar ; 

Put.    f erar ; 

Perf.  latus  sum ; 

Plup.  latus  eram ; 

F.  P.  latus  ero ; 


Pres.  ferar; 
Imp.   ferrer ; ' 
Perf.  latus  sim ; 
Plup.  latus  essem ; 

Pres.  ferre ; ' 

Put.    fertor,1 

f ertor ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  ferrf.1 
Perf.  latus  esse. 
Fut.    latum  M. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


PLURAL. 

ferimur,  ferimini,  feruntur 

ferebamur. 

feremur. 

lati  sun i us. 

latl  eramus. 

latl  erimus. 

feramur. 
ferrgmur. 

latl  siniiis. 
lati  cssemue. 

ferimini. 


feruntor. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  latus. 
Ger.    ferendus. 


1.  FerO  has  two  principal  irregularities  : 

1)  Its  forms  are  derived  from  three  independent  stems,  seen  in  ferd,  tvU^ 
latum. 

2)  It  dispenses  with  the  thematic  vowel,  e  or  i,  before  r,  »,  and  t. 

2.  COMPOUNDS  offero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a  few  ot 
them  the  preposition  suffers  a  euphonic  change : 


0ft. 

aufero 

auferre 

abstuli 

ablatum 

ad- 

«xiferO 

adferre 

attull 

allatum 

con- 

confers 

conferre 

contull 

collatum 

dis- 

differo 

differre 

distull 

dllatum 

«x- 

eflero 

efferre 

extull 

e  latum 

in~ 

infero 

Inferre 

intull 

illatum 

ob- 

offers 

offerre 

obtull 

oblatum 

svi>- 

suffero 

sufferre 

sustull 

sublatum 

'  Without  thematic  vowel. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


139 


NOTE. — Svttu/l  and  tut/latum  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  guferO,  to  bear,  but 
they  supply  the  Perfect  and  Supine  ottollo,  to  raise;  see  271. 

293.  Vol6,  velle,  volul,  to  be  willing. 

N6lO,  nolle,  nolui,  to  be  unwilling. 

Malo,  inalle.  malul,  to  prefer. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  void,  nOlo,  malO, 

vis,  nOn  vis,  mavis, 

vult;  nOnvult;  mavult; 

vommus,  uOlumus,  malumus, 

vultis,  nOn  vultis,  mavultis, 

volunt.  nolunt.  malunt. 

Imp.   vol6  bam.  nolebam.  malebam. 

Put.    volam.  nOlam.  malam. 

Perf.  volul.  nolui.  malul. 

I'lup.  volueram.  nOlueram.  malueram. 

F.  P.  voluero.  noluero.  maluerO. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  velim.1  nOlim.  m&lim. 

Imp.  vellem.*  .        nOllem.  mallem. 

Perf.  voluerim.  nOluerim.  m&luerim. 

Plup.  voluissem.  nOluissem.  maluissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  noli,          nSHte. 
Fut.    nollto,      nOlItOte, 
ndllto ;     nul  unt  o. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pret.  velle.  nOlle.  malle. 

Perf.  voluisse.  nOluisse.  mftluisse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Prea.  volfins.  |  nOl§ns.  j 

NOTE  1. — The  stem  of  void  is  vol,  with  variable  stem-vowel,  o,  e,  u. 

NOTE  2. — NOLO  is  compounded  of  ns  or  nSn  and  volo  ;  MALO,  of  magik 
and  volo. 

NOTE  3. — RARE  FORMS. — (1)  Of  VOL6:  volt,  voltis,  for  vult,  vultis,  sis, 
niltis,  for  A  vis,  si  vultis  ;  vln1  for  vlme. — (2)  Of  NOLO  :  nSvls,  nevult  (nevoU\ 

1   Velim  is  inflected  like  sim,  and  vellem  like  extern. 

3  \' file  in  and  relle  are  syncopated  forms  for  veltrem,  ttlere;  t  is  dropped  and  r 
issirn ilated :  velerem,  telrem.  vellem ;  vel#re,  v«lre,  velle.  So  ndllem  and  noUt,  for 
ifiltrtm  and  m'/lere;  mfillem.  and  mallt,  for  materem  and  mtllere. 


140 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


nevelle,  for  n8n  (nS)  vis,  n5n  (n&)  vult,  nslle. — (8)  Of  MALO  :  mdvold,  mclvelim, 
rn&vellem,  for  mate,  mdlirn,  mallem. 


294.  Flo,          fieri, 

factus  sum,           to  become,  be  made.  ' 

SINGULAR. 

INDICATIVE. 

PLURAL. 

Pree.  flo,  fls,  fit; 
Imp.    flebam  ; 
/'Vrf.    flam  ; 
Per/,  f  actus  sum  ; 
Plup,  factus  eram  ; 
F.  P.  factus  ero  ; 

flmus,  fltis,  flunt. 
flebamus. 
fiemus. 
factl  sumus. 
fact!  erfimus. 
factl  erimus. 

Pres.  flam  ; 
7wip.    fierem  ; 
Perf.  factus  sim  ; 
Plup.  factus  essem 

SUBJUNCTIVE.      flamu8 

fiergmus. 
factl  slums. 
;                                 factl  essemus. 

Pres.  ft; 

IMPERATIVE. 
flte. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  fieri. 

Perf.  factus  esse. 

Perf.  factus. 

Fut.    factum  Trl. 


Ger.    faciendus. 


295.  EO, 


ire, 


ivi, 


itum, 


to  go. 


Pres.  e5,  Is,  it  ; 

Turns,  Itis,  eunt. 

Imp.   Ibam  ; 

ibainus. 

Fut.    Ibo; 

Ibimus. 

Perf.  Ivi; 

Ivimus. 

Plup.  Iveram  ; 

Iveramus. 

F.  P.  Ivero  ; 

Iverimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  earn  ; 

eamus. 

Imp.  Irem  ; 

Iremus. 

Perf.  Iverim  ; 

Iverimus. 

Plup.  Ivissem  ; 

IvissSmus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  I; 

Ite. 

Fut.    It6, 

It6te, 

Ito; 

eunto. 

1  COMPOUNDS  of ftO  are  conjugated  like  tbe  simple  verb,  but  rinfl't,  dffit.  and  injii 
are  defective;  see  297,  III.,  2. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  141 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  Ire.  Pres.  iens,          Gen.  euntis. 

Perf.  Ivisse. 

Put.    iturus  ease.  Ful.    iturus, 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

Gen.  eundl, 

Dot.  eundO, 

Ace.  eund'im,  Ace.    itum, 

Abl.  eundO.  Abl.    ittt. 

).  Eo  is  a  verb  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  it  forms  the  Supine  with  a  short  vowel 
(itwm),  and  !s  irregular  in  several  parts  of  the  Present  System.  It  admits  contraction 
according  to  235 :  txtis  for  ivistis,  etc. 

2.  Kfi,  as  an  ID  transitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive,  except  when  used  impersonally  in 
the  third  singular,  Itur,  ibatur,  etc.  (3O1, 1),  but  Iri,  the  Passive  Infinitive,  occurs  as  an 
auxiliary  in  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive  of  the  regular  conjugations  :  amdtum.  frf,  etc. 

8.  COMPOUNDS  of  eO  generally  shorten  Ivl  into  if.  VeneQ  (venum  eo)  has  sometimes 
ntiiiiiinn  for  venlbam.  Muny  compounds  want  the  Supine,  and  a  few  admit  in  the 
Future  a  rare  form  in  earn,  if«,  iet. 

NOTE  1. — Transitive  compounds  have  the  Passive:  adefj,  to  approach;  adeor,  etc. 

NOTB  2. — Ambio  is  regular,  like  audio,  though  amblbam  for  ambifbam  occurs. 

296.  QueO,  quire,  qulvl,  quitum,  to  be  able,  and  nequed,  nequlre,  nequlvl 
(il),  nequiium,  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  ed,  but  they  want  the  Im- 
perative and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense.1 

DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

297.  Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts.     The  following  are 
the  most  important : a 

T.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  WANTING. 

Coepf ,  /  have  begun.  Meminl,  /  remember.  OdI,  /  hate. 

INDICATIVE. 


Parf.  coepi. 
Ptup.  coeperam. 
F.  P.  coepero 


Perf.  coepcrim. 
Plup.  coepissem. 


meminl. 

memineram. 

meminerO. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

meminerim. 
meminissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  memento. 
Plur.  mementfite. 


odl. 

Oderam. 

odero. 


ftderim. 

ftdissem. 


1  A  Passive  form,  tjuitur,  neqvfitur,  etc.,  occurs  before  a  Passive  Infinitive. 
8  For  many  verbs  which  want  the  Perfect  or  Supine,  or  both, 


142 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


Fut. 


coepisse. 
coepturus  esse. 


INFINITIVE. 

meminisse. 


odisee. 
dsurus  ease. 


08U8.1 

osurus. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  coeptus. 
Fut.    coepturus. 

1.  With  PASSIVE  INFINITIVES, 'coepl  generally  takes  the  Passive  form  :  coeptus  sum, 
eram,  etc.    Coeptrus  is  Passive  in  sense. 

2.  Meminl  and  odi  are  Present  in  sense;  hence  in  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect 
they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperfect  and  Future.    Jfovi,  '  I  know,'  Perfect  of  nosco,  '  to 
learn,'  and  consuetl,  '  I  am  wont,'  Perfect  of  consucsco,  '  to  accustom  one's  self,'  are  also 
Present  in  sens«. 

II.  PARTS  OF  EACH  SYSTEM  WANTING. 
1.  Aio,  I  say,  say  yes.* 

ait; 
-6bat ; 
ait; 
aiat; 


Indie.  Pres.  aiO, 

Imp.  aiebam, 

Perf.  

tin.    Pres.  


ais,9 
-ebas, 


aiunt. 


-ebamus,        -Cbatis,    -ebant.4 


aias, 


aiant. 


Imper.  Pres.  al  (rare). 
Part.    Pres.  aiens. 

2.  Inquam,  I  say. 
Indie.  Pres.  inquam, 

Imp.  

Put.   


inquis, 


inquit  ; 
-     inquiebat  ; 
inquifis,  inquiet; 
inquitti,  inquit  ; 


inquimus,      inquitis,  inquiunt. 


Imper.  Pres.  inque.     Fut.  inquitd. 

3.  Fan,  to  speak.* 
Indie.  Pres. 

Fut.   fabor, 

Perf.  fatus  sum,    es, 

Phtp.  fatus  eram,  eras, 
Subj.    Perf.  fatus  sim,     sis, 

PI  up.  fatus  essera,  esses, 
Imper.  Pres.  fare. 
Inftn.    Pres.  farl. 
Part.     Pres.  (fans)  fantis. 
Gerund,  Gen.  and  Abl.  fandl,  do. 


fatur; 
fabitur ; 

est ; 
erat; 
sit; 
easel ; 


fatl  sumus,     estis,  sunt. 

f&tl  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

'fatl  simus,     sitis,  sint. 

fatl  ess&mus,  essetis,  essent. 


Perf.  fatus. 
Supine,  Abl.  fatu. 


Ger.  fandus. 


1  Otun  is  Active  in  sense,  hating,  but  is  rare  except  in  compounds :  ar<~>Ku«.  ptrdsw. 

*  In  this  verb  a  and  i  do  not  form  a  diphthong;  before  a  vowel  the  i  has  the  sound 
•f  y:  a-yO,  d-yunt;  Bee  1O,  4,  8). 

s  The  interrogative  form  atene  is  often  shortened  into  airi1. 
4  Aibam,  att>a«,  etc.,  occur;  also  inquibat  for  inquiebat. 

*  Farl  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.    Compounds  have  some  forms  not  found  in  th« 
simple:  adftimur,  adfamini,  adf&bar ;  effaberis. 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 


143 


III.  IMPERATIVES  AND  ISOLATED  FOBMS. 

1.  IMPERATIVES. 

have,  havete;  havetO;  Inf.  havere,1         hail. 

salve,  salvete,  salveto;*  aalvere,          hail. 

cedo,  cette,  tell  me, 

apage,  begone. 

2.  ISOLATED  FORMS. 

INDICATIVE.  StrBJUNcrivm. 

PlUME  NT.  FUTTTEB.         PRESENT.  IMPERFECT.          INPTNIMVB. 

eOnfit  ;    -  confiat  ;    confieret  ; 

deflt,      deftnnt  ;    deflet  ;        deflat  ;      - 
Inflt,       Influnt,     - 

Sub.  Imp.  forem,  fores,  foret,  --  forent. 
Jnd.  Pres.  ovat,  he  rejoices. 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso,  quaesumus,4  1  pray. 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

298.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English  Impersona) 
with  it:  licet,  it  is  lawful;  oportet,  it  behooves.6     They  are  conju- 
gated like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present  and  Per- 
fect Infinitive. 

299.  The  most  important  Impersonal  Verbs  are  — 


confierl,    to  be  dotu. 
defieri,     to  be  wantinf 
-          to  begin. 

Inf.    fore.8 
Part,  ovans. 


decet,      deouit, 

libet, 

libuit, 

licet, 

licuit, 
licitum  est, 

liquet,     licuit, 

it  becomes.' 


it  is  evident.' 


piguit, 
pigitura  eat, 
paenitet,  paenituit,       it  cautes  r& 


. 
P^et' 


1.  PAKTICIPLES  are  generally  wanting,  but  a  few  occur,  though  with  a  somewhat 
modified  aeuse:  (1)  from  LIBET:  libfnn,  willing;  (2)  from  LICET:  licfns,  free  ;  Ucitiis, 
allowed;  (8)  from  PABNITBT:  paenittns,  penitent;  paenitendut,  to  be  repented  of;  (*,' 
from  PUDET  :  i>inli an,  modest ;  pudendu*,  shameful 

2.  QEBUNDS  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  In  rare  Instances :  patniteiidum,  pu- 
tUndfi. 

1  Atao  written  ave,  avete,  etc. 
The  Future  »alvel>\»  is  also  used  for  the  Imperative. 
Forem  =  exsem ;  fore  =futilrum  ense  ;  see  2O4,  2. 
Old  forms  for  quiitro  and  quaerimwt. 

The  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause,  but  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun  de< 
not  ng  a  thing,  but  not  a  perxon :  Me  fieri  oportet,  that  this  should  be  done  is  necessary 
These  four  occur  in  the  third  person  plural,  but  without  a  personal  subject. 
Mt  migeret,  I  pity ;  mf  patnitet,  I  repent. 
Also  the  compound,  pertaedet,  pertavrum  e»t,  It  greatly  wearies. 


144  PARTICLES. 

300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  designate 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature  : 

Fulminat,  it  lightens ;  grandinat,  it  hails  ;  lucescit,  it  grows  light ;  plvit , 
it  rains ;  rorat,  dew  falls ;  tonat,  it  thunders. 

301.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 

Aceidit,  it  happens ;  appdret,  it  appears ;  constat,  it  is  evident ;  contingit, 
it  happens ;  delectat,  it  delights  ;  dolet,  it  grieves ;  interest,  it  concerns ;  juvat, 
it  delights ;  patet,  it  is  plain ;  placet^  it  pleases ;  praestat,  it  is  better ;  rtfert, 
»t  concerns. 

1.  In  the  PASSIVE  VOICE  intransitive  verbs  can  be  used  only  impersonally.    The  par- 
ticiple is  then  neater : 

Mihl  creditw,  it  is  credited  to  me,  I  am  believed;  tibl  creditur,  you  are  believed; 
creditum  est,  it  was  believed;  cert&tttr,  it  is  contended;  cwrritur,  there  is  running,  peo 
pie  run;  ptigndtur,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight;  vivitur,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  PASSIVE  PERIPHRASTIC  COSJUOATION  (,234)  is  often  used  impersonally.    The 
participle  is  then  neuter: 

MM  tortbendum  est,  I  must  write;  tibi  acribendum  «•<,  you  must  write;  Ml  tori 
bendum  tst,  be  must  write. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PARTICLES. 

302.  THE  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes  called 
Particles:  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  In- 
unyection. 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used  to  qual- 
ify verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs:  celeriter  currere,  to  run 
swiftly;  tarn  celer,  so  swift;  tarn  celeriter,  so  swiftly. 

304.  In  their  origin,  Adverbs  are  mainly  the  oblique  cases l  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  participles,  and  pronouns. 

I.  ACCUSATIVES. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Accusatives : 

1.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  NOUNS:  partim,  partly ;  fords,1  out  of  doors;  diu1  (for 
dium9),  for  a  long  time.  Here  belong  numerous  adverbs  in  tim  and  «ww., 
chiefly  from  verbal  nouns 3  no  longer  in  use :  >  contemptim,  contemptuously  ; 

1  Some,  indeed,  are  the  oblique  cases  of  words  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  and  some 
tro  formed  by  means  of  case-endings  no  longer  used  in  the  regular  declensions. 

J  Accusative  of  dius  =  dies. 

*  Some  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim  are  from  adjectives :  singuldtim,  one  by  one.  I» 
time  doubtless  tim,  dtim,  fin/,  and  im  came  to  be  regarded  simply  as  adverbial  suffixes, 
and  were  so  used  in  forming  new  adverb*. 


ADVERBS.  145 

&ngim,   perceptibly,  slowly ;  raptim,  hastily ;  statim,  steadily ;  furtim,  by 
stealth. 

•2.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  NOUNS  WITH  PREPOSITIONS  :  ad^nod/um,  very,  to  the  full 
measure ;  in-vicem,  in  turn ;  in-caasum,  in  vain ;  ob-iter,  on  the  road,  in  pass- 
ing ;  ob-'oiam,  in  the  way,  against ;  poat-modum,  after  a  short  time ;  inter- 
diu '  and  inter-dint,*  during  the  day ;  inter-dum,1  during  the  time,  in  the 
mean  time. 

3.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  ADJECTIVES: 

1)  NEUTERS  in  urn,  a,  e,  us,  is :  soli/m,  only ;  multum,  multa,  much ;  nim* 
turn,  too  much ;  parum,  little ;  secundum,  secondly  ;  ceterum?  cetera,  as  to  the 
rest ;  verum?  truly ;  abunde,3  abundantly  ;  facile,  easily  ;  saepe,*  often ;  plus, 
more ;  minus,  less ;  saepius.  more  frequently ;  mat/is,  more,  rather.8 

2)  FEMININES  in  am,  as :  bifdriam,*  in  two  parts;  multifdriam,  in  many 
parts  ;  clam  =  calam,  secretly  ;  palam,  openly ;  perperam,  wrongly  ;   alias, 
otherwise. 

4.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS:  quamj  how  much;  tarn,"1  so  much;  htm, 
then ;  tun-c,  at  that  time ;  nun-c,  now. 

II.  ABLATIVES. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Ablatives : 

1.  ABLATIVES  OF  NODJ*S  in  d,  e,  Is:  ergo,  accordingly;8  numero,  exactly; 
forte,  by  chance  ;  jure,  rightly ;  sponte,  willingly ;  grdtiis,  or  gratis,  gratui- 
tously ;  forls,  out  of  doors. 

NOTE.— The  ablative  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  preposition  or  by  an  adjective: 
ex-templ<i,  Immediately— lit.,  from  the  moment;  llico  for  in  loon,  on  the  spot;  quot- 
iiiuiix.  yearly;  multi-modls,  in  many  ways;  lio-die  (hoc-die),  to-day;  qud-re,  where- 
fore, by  which  thing. 

2.  ABLATIVES  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES  in  d,  FEMININE,  d,  ?,'  and  I, 
NEUTER  :  dextrd 10  =  detterd,  on  the  right ;  extra,11  on  the  outside ;  infra,11  on 
the  under  side ;  intrd,  on  the  inside ; — intrd,  within ;  ultra,  beyond ;  perpetud, 
continually ;  ran?,  rarely ;  suhitd,  suddenly ;  auspicdtd,  after  taking  the  aus- 

1  Dili  and  dum  are  explained  as  forms  of  dium  =  diem,  and  diu»  as  for  diis;  see 
Corssen,  I.,  pp.  232-286;  II.,  488. 

2  Often  becoming  conjunctions — etterum,  but.    Non,  from  ne-unum,  also  belongs 
here. 

3  From  obsolete  abundix. 

*  Here  may  be  added  Kernel,  '  once,'  and  simul,  'at  the  same  time,'  both  for  simile. 

8  .Sec?M,  'otherwise';  tentis,  'as  far  as';  prfitinun,  'straightforward1;  and  vtrsu* 
toward,'  doubtless  belong  here. 

*  Originally  partem  or  viam  may  have  been  used. 

7  Quiim,  from  stem  qua,  In  qu'i,  quae;  tarn,  turn,  from  stem  ta,  to,  in  the  final  syl- 
able  of  ixt*,  for  ig-tn-n,  in-ta;  tun-c  =  t-uin-ce,  nun-c  =  num-ce,  in  which  num  is  from 
the  stem  no,  seen  also  in  num, '  whether,'  and  also  In  its  original  form,  na,  In  nam,  'for.' 

8  Literally,  by  the  deed.    Compare  Greek  ipyov,  fpy<?. 

*  That  e  is  here  an  ablative  ending  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  It  appears  in  early  Latin 
in  the  form  of  fd,  an  undoubted  ablative  ending. 

10  With  those  feminines,  parfe  or  via  may  have  been  originally  used. 

11  Often  becoming  prepositions.    In  fact,  all  prepositions  In  «  are  derived  from  adrerbe 
which  were  originally  ablatives  In  ad,  afterward  <J. 

11 


140  ADVERBS. 

pices ;  consulto,  after  deliberating ;  sortito,  by  lot,  i.  e.,  after  casting  lots  ;— 
dvcte,  learnedly  ;  libere,  freely ;  certe,1  surely ;  mrf?,  rightly ;  vert,  truly  ;— 
doctissime,  most  skillfully  ;  mdxime?  especially  ; — brevi,  briefly. 

3.  ABLATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS  :  ea,  there,  in  that  way  ;  fide,  here,  in  this  way ; 
qua,  where,  in  which  way ;  eddem,  by  the  same  road,  in  the  same  way. 

NOTE. — Several  pronominal  adverbs  denote  direction  toward  a  point:  en,  to  that 
place;  hoc,  hue,  to  this  place,3  illfi,  illo-c,  ittu-c,  to  that  place;  isto,  isto-c,  ittfi-c,  to 
the  place  where  you  are;  quf>,  to  which  place. 

III.  LOCATIVES. — Some  Adverbs  were  originally  Locatives : 

1.  LOCATIVES  OF  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES  in  I  or  e :  hen,  yesterday ;  tern- 
perl^  in  time ;  vesperi,  in  the  evening  ;  peregri,  or  peregre,  in  a  foreign  land. 

2.  LOCATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS  :  7*ic,4here;  illic,4  there;  istic,  there  where  you 
are  ;  sic,  in  this  way,  thus  ;  utlf  ut,  in  which  way  ;  ibi,*  there  ;  ubi,  where. 

NOTE. — Locative  forms  in  im  also  occur :  olim,  formerly  ;  vtrim-que,  on 
both  sides  ;  ilUm,  illin-c,  from  that  place ;  hin-c,  from  this  place  ;  often  with 
de :  utrin-de,  from  both  sides  ;  in-de,  from  that  point,  thence. 

IV.  ADVERBS  IN  tus  AND  ter. — Adverbs  are  also  formed  by  means  of 
the  endings  tus 7  and  ter : 7 

Fundi-tus,  from  the  foundation ;  rddici-tus,  from  the  roots,  utterly ;  dlmni- 
tu»,  by  divine  appointment,  divinely  ;  forti-ter,  bravely  ;  dcri-ter,  sharply  ; 
durv-ter,  harshly  ;  elegan-ter,  elegantly  ;  aman-ter,  lovingly  ;  pmden-ter,  pru- 
dently. 

NOTE  1. — The  stem- vowel  before  tus  becomes  i,  and  consonant  stems  as- 
sume * :  fundi-tas*  rddic-i-tus.  The  stem-vowel  before  ter  also  becomes 
i :  durteer.8  Consonant  stems,  however,  do  not  assume  i,  but  drop  final  t  : 
amant-ter,  aman-ter. 

NOTE  2. — Many  adverbs  are  simply  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses  whose 
parts  have  become  united  in  writing.  In  these  compound  forma  prepositions 

1  As  e  is  an  ablative  ending,  certo  and  certe  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same 
word ;  so  also  recto  and  recte,  verfi  and  vere,  though  the  two  forms  do  not  always  have 
precisely  the  same  meaning:  v?r<>,  in  truth;  vere,  truly. 

2  This  is  the  regular  ending  in  superlatives. 

3  These  are  sometimes  explained  as  Dative*,  but  they  are  probably  Ablatives;  ilb~>, 
lit.,  by  thftt  way  or  road,  finally  came  to  mean  to  that  place,  \.  e.,  to  the  place  to  which 
the  road  leads. 

4  Here  the  Locative  ending  is  ?  /  hi,  illi,  istl,  si ;  c  for  ce  is  a  demonstrative  ending, 
meaning  here.    Sic  is  the  Locative  of  na  ;  see  313,  foot-note. 

'  Ut'i  contains  two  stems— u  or  cu  (seen  in  cui),  and  (a  or  to  (seen  in  U  in  is-te). 
•  In  ibi  and  ubi  the  ending  is  67 ;  i  in  ibi  is  the  stem  of  in.  he ;  u  in  ub\  is  the  same 
as  in  » '/ . 

7  Seen  also  in  in-ter,  in  the  midst;  in-tus,  within;  sub-ter  and  sub-tus,  below. 
These  suffixes  are  of  uncertain  origin ;  the  former  appears  to  be  a  case-suffix  with  abla- 
tive meaning,  no  longer  used  in  declension ;  the  latter,  like  ter  in  al-ter,  nos-ter,  and  dex- 
ter, has  lost  its  case-suffix,  and  may  therefore  represent  either  tero  with  an  ablative  suffix, 
or  terum  with  an  accusative  suffix.     See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  29'.);  Kiilmer.  I.,  p.  079. 

8  The  stem-vowel  o  is  changed  to  i. 


ADVERBS 


14? 


arc  especially  common,  and  sometimes  seem  to  be  used  with  cases  with  which 
they  do  not  otherwise  occur:  ant-ed,,1  before,  before  that;  inter-ed,  in  the 
mean  time  ;  post-ed,  after ;  ante-Mc,1  before  this  ;  quem-ad-modum,  in  what 
manner ;  parum-per,  for  a  while  ;  nu-per  —  novurn-per,  lately  ;  tantis-per,  for 
so  long  a  time  ;  videlicet  =  videre  licet,  clearly — lit.,  '  it  is  permitted  to  see' ; 
scilicet  =  scire  licet,  certainly  ;  forvitan  =fors  sit  an,  perhaps. 

305.  Many  Pronominal  Adverbs,  like  the  pronouns  from  which 
they  are  formed  (191),  are  correlatives  of  each  other,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  following 

TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES. 


IHTEBEOGATIVE. 

INDEFINITE. 

DKMONSTKATIVB. 

RELATIVE. 

I.  PLACE  IN  WHICH. 

alicubl,    somewhere  ; 

hie,  here  ;  3   istic, 

uU,  where  ?  » 

uspiam,  usquam,  any- 
where; ubivis,  where 

there  ;  ill/lc,  there  ; 

ubi,  where. 

you  please. 

II.  PLACE  TO  WHICH. 

hue,  to  this  place  ;  3 

qud,  whither? 

aUqud,  to  some  place  ; 
quolibet,  qudvis,  whith- 
er you  please. 

istuc,  to  that  place  ; 
illuc,  to  that  place; 
ed,  to  that  place  ; 
eddern,  to  the  same 

quo,  whither. 

place. 

qudrsum,*  to 
what  place? 
to  what  end  ? 

aliqud-vorsum,4  to 
some  place. 

hdrsum,*  to  this 
place. 

qudrsum,   to 
which  place  or 
end. 

III.  PLAGE  FROM  WHICH. 

hinc,  from  this  place  ; 

alicunde,  from  some   istinc,    from    that 

unde,  whence? 

place  ;  undelibet,  from    place  ;   illinc,  from 

unde,  whence. 

any  place. 

that  place  ;  inde, 

from  that  place. 

1  Some  scholars,  regarding  ed  and  h&c  In  tbese  and  similar  cases  as  ablatives,  think 
i,hat  all  such  compounds  had  their  origin  at  a  time  when  ante,  pout,  inter,  etc.,  admitted 
(hat  case ;  but  Corssen  treats  td  and  fulc  in  all  such  cases  a»  ne.ute.ru  in  the  accuxatirt, 
plural.  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  465;  Bucheler,  p.  32. 

"  Observe  that  the  question  ubl,  'where?1  may  be  answered  indefinitely  by  alicu- 
bi,  uspiain,  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a  demonstrative  either  alone  or  with  a  relative :  hie, 
'here';  /t?c,  ubi,  'here,  where.' 

3  fflc,  'here,'  'near  me';  ixt^c,  'there,1  'near  you';  illic,  'there,1  'near  him';  t&i, 
'there,'  a  weak  demonstrative  and  the  most  common  correlative  of  ubl,  'where.'    8e« 
distinction  in  pronouns  (191).     A  similar  distinction  exists  in  hue,  ixtiic,  illf/a,  and  ««. 

4  For  qw-torsum  -  qwi-versum,  'whither  turned1;  aliqiw-vorsum,  huo-vorsum. 


148 


ADVERBS. 


TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES. — (Continued.') 


INTERROGATIVE. 

INDEFINITE. 

DEMONSTRATIVE. 

BBLATIVB. 

IV.  TIME. 

g«aw<&,wb.en? 

guotiens,  how 
often? 

quandd,  aliquando, 
unquam,  at  any  time. 

aUquotienx,  somewhat 
often. 

nunc,  now;   turn, 
then  ;  tune,  at  that 
very  time  ;  ibi,  then. 

fattens,  so  often. 

quom,  cum, 
quum,  when. 

quotient,  as,  as 
often. 

V.  WAT,  MANNER,  DEGREE. 

qua,  by  or  in 
what  way? 

ut,  uti,  how  ? 

quam,  how 
much? 

aliqua,  by  or  in  some 
way  ;   qvdvw,  by  any 
way. 

aliqua,  in  some  way, 
etc. 

aliquam,  somewhat. 

Aac,   by   this   way  ; 
istdc,  by  that  way; 
iliac,  by  that  way  ; 
ed,  by  that  way  ;  ed- 
dem,   by   the    same 
way. 

ita,  sic,  so,  thus. 
tarn,  so  much. 

qua,  by  which 
way. 

ut,    iiti,    in 
which  way,  as. 

quam,  as. 

NOTE  1.— From  Relative  Adverbs  are  formed  General  or  Indefinite  Relatives  by 
appending  -cumque  or  by  reduplicating  the  form :  ublcumque,  ubiubl,  wheresoever ; 
quf/cumque,  quf'qun,  whithersoever. 

NOTE  2. — Other  examples  are — 

1)  PLACE: — alibi,  elsewhere;  ibidem,  in  the  same  place;  necubi,  lest  anywhere, 
that  nowhere;  sicubi,  if  anywhere;  a/id,  to  another  place;  citrd,  to  this  side;  filtro 
eitrdque,  to  and  fro;  utroque,  to  both  places  ;  aliwn.de,  from  another  place ;  indidem, 
from  the  same  place ;  utrimque,  from  or  on  both  sides ;  und-ique,  from  all  sides. 

2)  TIME:— ltod-ie,  to-day  ;  fieri,  yesterday;  eras,  to-morrow;  pndie,  the  day  be- 
fore; postridie.  the  day  after;  jam,  already ;  jam  turn,  even  then;  jamditl.jamdudiim, 
jamprldem.  long  ago ;  quondam,  at  a  certain  time ;  olim,  formerly,  hereafter  ;  interim, 
intered,  meanwhile;  anted,  prius,  before;  post,  posteCi,  afterward;  unquam,  ever; 
nfmquam,  never;  semper,  at  all  times. 

3)  WAY,  MANNER,  DEGREE  :—aden,  so ;  aliter,  otherwise ;  magix,  more ;  paene.  al- 
most ;  palam,  openly ;  prorsus,  wholly  ;  rite,  rightly ;  valde,  greatly  ;  v'ur,  scarcely. 

4)  CAUSE  :—ciir,  why;  ef>,  for  this  reason;  ideo,  idcircfi, propterea,  on  this  account; 
ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  therefore,  accordingly. 

NOTE  8. — Fescio,  with  an  interrogative  adverb,  is  often  equivalent  to  an  indefinite 
adverb :  nexcid  qitfimodo,  I  know  not  in  what  way  =  quodammodo,  in  some  way ; 
nescio  ubl=  alieubi,  In  some  place;  nestift  unde=alicunde,  from  some  place;  see  also 
191,  note. 

Nora  4. — Adverbial  phrases  are  formed  by  combining  minim  or  nimium  with  quan- 
tum :  mlrum  quantum,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  =  wonderfully  much,  wonderfully ; 
nimium  quantum,  exceedingly.  Mlrum  quam,  »~ine  q>iam,  and  valde  quam  have  a 
similar  force  :  hoic  wonderfully,  how  very,  how  greatly  —  exceedingly,  iconderfutty. 

NOTE  5.— For  INTERROGATIVE  PABTICLKS,  see  311,  8. 

NOTE  6. — For  NKGATIV*  PABTIOLES,  see  552. 


PREPOSITIONS.  149 

306.  COMPARISON. — Most  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives, 
and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  comparison.     The  com- 
parative is  the  accusative  neuter  singular  of  the  adjective,  and  the 
superlative  changes  the  ending  us  of  the  adjective  into  e : ' 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  lofty- 

alte,  altius,  altissime,  loftily. 

prudSns,  prudentior,  prudentissimus,  prudent. 

prudenter,  prudentius,  prudentissime,  prudently. 

1.  When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  magis  and  mSximS,  the  adverb 
is  compared  in  the  same  way : 

egregius,  magis  egregius,          maxime  Sgregius,  excellent. 

egregie,  magis  egregie,  maxime  egregie,  excellently. 

2.  When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  adverb  has  the  same  irregularity : 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good. 

bene,  melius,  optim6,  well. 

male,  pejus,  pessime,  badly. 

3.  When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  adverb  is  generally  defective : 

deterior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

dfiterius,  deterrime,  worse. 

novus,  novissimus,  new. 

nove,  novissime',  newly. 

4.  A  few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 

diu,  diutius,  diutissime,  for  a  long  time. 

saepe,  saepius,  saepissimS,  often. 

satis,  eatiug,  sufficiently. 

nuper,  nuperrime,  recently. 

5.  Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also  those  from  ad- 
jectives incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared :  hlc,  here ;  nunc, 
now ;  vulffdriter,  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  6  or  um  are  used  in  a  few  adverbs :  prlmO,  primum, 
potisfimum. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

307.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows  the 
relations  of  objects  to  each  other : 

In  Italia  esse,  to  be  IN  Italy  ;  ante  me ,  BEFORE  me. 

NOTE  1. — Prepositions  were  originally  adverba,  and,  like  other  adverbs  (3O4),  are  in 
origin  petrified  case-forms.2 

1  See  304,  II..  2. 

2  Thns  prepositions  In  ft  are  in  origin  ablatives :  cir&i,  citnl.  contra,  erga.  eo-tnl. 
\itfrCi.  etc:  while  those  in  m  are  accusatives:  drcwm,  &<ram,  cum.  eta.     These  case 
forms  passed  into  adverbs  denoting  ilirei'tion.  situation,  etc.;  but  they  finally  became 
iMociuted  with  nouns  in  the  accusative  or  ablative  as  auxiliary  to  the  case-ending :  /<«•< 


150  CONJUNCTIONS. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  UBK  of  Prepositions,  see  432-437. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  FORM  and  MEANING  of  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

308.  INSEPARABLE    PREPOSITIONS.  '  —  Ambi,    amb,     '  arouad,1 
'about';    dis,    dl,    'asunder';    in,    'not,'    'un-';    por,    'toward,1 
'forth';  re,  red,   'back';  se,  sed,  'aside,'  'apart';  and  ve,  'not,' 
are  called  Inseparable  Prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in 
composition. 

NOTE. — For  the  FORM  aud  MEANING  of  the  Inseparable  Prepositions  in  Composition., 
&ee  344,  6. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.     They  are  either  Co- 
ordinate or  Subordinate. 

1.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  similar  constructions-. 

Labor  voluptasQUE,2  labor  AND  pleasure.     Karthaginem  cepit  Ac 2  dlruit,  Ju 
took  AND  destroyed  Carthage. 

2.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  subordinate  with  principal  con- 
structions : 

Haec  DUM  *  colligunt,  effugit,  WHILE  they  collect  these  things,  lie  escapes. 

310.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  comprise — 

1.  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  UNION  : 

Et,  que,  atque,*  ac,  and;  etiam,  quoque,  also;  neque,  nee,  and  D_»t;  neque 
— neque,  nee — nee,  neque — nee,  neither — nor. 

2.  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  SEPARATION  : 

Aut,4  Del,  ve,  sive  (seu),  or;  aut — aut,  vel — vel,  either — or;  »ive — five,  eith- 
er— or. 

NOTE. — Here  belong  interrogative  particles  in  double  or  disjunctive  questions :  utrum, 
num.,  or  ne — an,  whether — or;  an,  or;  annfm,  necne,  or  not;  see  353. 

3.  ADVERSATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  OPPOSITION  : 


=  FROM  a  place ;  «*  loco  =  oirr  OF  a  place ;  aliquid  low  movere,  to  move  anything  FROM 
a  place;  aliquid  ex  locfi  movere,  to  move  anything  OUT  OF  a  place.  An  adverb  thus 
separated  from  the  verb  and  brought  into  connection  with  a  noun  ceased  to  be  ar  adrerli 
and  became  a  preposition. 

1  Like  other  prepositions,  these  were  doubtless  originally  case-forms. 

a  Thus  que  connects  two  nominatives,  dc  two  indicatives  which  are  entirely  coordi 
nate,  took  AND  destroyed,  but  dum  connects  'the  subordinate  clause,  haeo — colligunt, 
with  the  principal  clause,  effugit — he  escapes  WHILE  they  collect  these  things. 

8  Copulative  conjunctions  are  et  =  Greek  en,  que  —  KCU,  and  their  compounds — tt-iam 
or  et-jarn^  at-que,  quo-que,  ne-que.  Ac  is  a  shortened  form  of  at-que ;  nee,  of  ne-que. 

4  Disjunctives  are  aut,  vel,  tie,  with  their  compounds  :  vel  —  rel'/s, '  should  you  wish,' 
offering  a  choice,  v«  =  vis,  '  you  wish,1  M  in  qul-vw,  '  any  you  please ' ;  »lvt  =  sivls, '  if 
you  with.' 


CONJUNCTIONS.  151 

Sed,1  a/item,  verum,  vero,  but;  at,  but,  on  the  contrary;  atqul,  rather; 
ceterum,  but  still,  moreover;4  tamen,  yet. 

4.  ILLATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  INFERENCE  : 

Ergo,  igitur,  inde,  proinde,  itaque,  hence,  therefore  ;  see  also  554,  IV.,  2. 

6.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CAUSE  : 

Nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for.3 

311.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  comprise — 

1.  TEMPORAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  TIME  : 

Quando,  quom,*  cum,  or  quum,  when ;  ut,  ubl,  as,  when ;  cum  (quom  or 
quum)  prlmum,  ut  prlmum,  ubl  primum,  simul,  simuldc,  simul  ac,  simul- 
atque,  simul  atque,  as  soon  as ;  dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiuf  while,  until,  as 
long  as ;  antequam,  priusquam,  before ;  posteaquam,  after. 

2.  COMPARATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  COMPARISON  : 

Ut,  utl,  slcut,  slcuti,  as,  so  as ;  velut,  just  as ;  praeut,  prout,  according  as, 
in  comparison  with ;  quam,  as  ;  tanquam,  quasi,  ut  si,  ac  si,  velut  si,  as  if. 

3.  CONDITIONAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONDITION  : 

(Si,'  if;  si  non,  nisi,  nl,  if  not;  sin,  but  if;  si  quidem,  if  indeed;  si  modo, 
dum  modo,  dum/modo,  if  only,  provided. 

4.  CONCESSIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONCESSION  : 

Quamquam,  licet,"1  cum  (quom,*  or  quum),  although  ;  etxl,  tametsl,  ftiamsl, 
even  if;  qunmvv<,i  quantumvw,  quantumlibet,7  however  much,  although;  ut, 
grant  that ;  m,  grant  that  not. 

5.  FINAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  PURPOSE  or  END  : 

Ut,  utl,  that,  in  order  that ;  ri&,  neve  (neu),  that  not ;  quo,  that ;  qufrminus,* 
that  not. 

6.  CONSECUTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONSEQUENCE  or  RESULT  : 
Ut,  so  that ;  ut  non,  quvn,*  so  that  not. 

1  Conjunctions,  like  adverbs,  consist  largely  of  case-forms,  chiefly  from  pronominal 
items.    Thus,  ted,  ne,rf>,  ergfi,  etc.,  are  explained  as  ablatives  (»ed  from  *w?);  autei», 
vfrum,  ceterum,  quam,  quod,  qitom,  or  cum,  etc.,  as  accusatives;  que,  ubl,  utl,  ut,  etc., 
M  locatives. 

2  Lit.,  an  to  the  rent. 

8  But  most  Canaal  Conjunctions  are  subordinate;  see  311,  7. 

4  Quom,  the  original  form  out  of  which  cum  and  qtium  were  developed  (22;  26. 
foot-note),  occurs  In  early  Latin,  as  in  Plantus.  Cum  is  the  approved  form  in  classical 
Latin. 

8  See  3O4,  I.,  1  and  2,  foot  notes. 

8  Probably  locative,  possibly  instrumental:  see  page  78,  foot-note  2. 

7  Licet  is  strictly  a  verb,  meaning  it  is  permitted ;  c?*.  In  quam-r'is  and  quantum- 
fit,  is  also  a  verb:  qwani-vlit,  'as  much  as  you  wish1;  as  is  alio  libef,  'it  pleases,'  In 
quantum-libet,  'as  much  as  is  pleasing.' 

8  Qufrmimu  =  quit  minus,  '  by  which  less' ;  quin  =  qul  nf,  '  by  which  not.' 


152  FORMATION  OF    WORDS. 

7.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CAUSE  : 

Quia,  quod,  quoniam,1  quando,  because,  inasmuch  as;  cum  (qvom,  quum\ 
since  ;  quanddquid-em,  siquidemj*  vtpote,  since  indeed. 

8.  INTERROGATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  INQUIRY  : 3 

Ne,  nonnt,  nwm,  utrum,  an,  whether;  an  non,  necne,  or  not 

INTERJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expressions  of 
feeling  or  as  mere  marks  of  address.4     They  may  express — 

1.  Astonishment :  6,  hem,  ehem,  atat,  bubae,  vdh,  en,  ecce. 

2.  Joy .  id,  evoe,  euge,  'eja,  0,  papae. 

3.  Sorrow :  vae,  ei,  heu,  eh#u,  dhi,  dh,  au,  fro. 

4.  Disgust :  aha,  phy,  apage. 

6.  Calling :  heus,  o,  e/io,  ehodum. 
6.  Praise  :  eu,  euge,  eja,  foja. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 


SECTION    I. 

ROOTS.— STEMS.— SUFFIXES. 

313.  Words  are  formed  from  stems  616,  1),  and  stems  from 
roots  or  from  other  stems. 

NOTE  1. — Thus  uta-tut,  'position,'  is  formed  from  the  stem  statu  by  adding  the  nom- 
inative snffix  «,5  but  the  stem  xtatn  is  itself  formed  from  the  root  sta  by  appending  the 
derivative  suffix  tu. 

1  Compounded  of  quom-jam,  when  now. 

*  lit.,  if  indeed. 

*  These  are  sometimes  classed  as  Adrerbs.    In  some  of  their  uses  they  are  plainly 
Conjunction*,  while  in  other  cases  they  approach  closely  to  the  nature  of  Adverbs.    As 
a  matter  of  convenience  they  may  be  called  Interrogative  Particles:  see  351,  1. 

4  Some  interjections  seem  to  be  the  simple  and  natural  utterance  of  feeling,  and 
accordingly  do  not  appear  to  have  been  built  up,  like  other  words,  from  roots  and  stems, 
but  to  be  themselves  specimens  of  the  unorganized  elements  of  human  speech.  Others, 
however,  are  either  inflected  forms,  as  age,  'come,'  apage  =  an-aye,  'begone,'  or  muti- 
lated sentences  or  clauses  :  mehercufe*,  mehtreu  V,  etc.,  =  me  Ilerculftt  juvef,  *  may 
Hercules  protect  me';  mfeastf'r,  'may  Castor  protect  me';  mfdi us  Jidiu*.  'may  the 
true  God  help  me';  f cantor  =  en  Cattfo;  '  lo  Castor.' 

*  This  «  is  doubtless  a  remnant  of  an  old  demonstrative,  sa,  meaning  that,  he,  sfo. 


ROOTS,— STEMS.  153 

Ron  2.— Words  are  either  simple  or  compound : 

1.  Simple,  when  formed  from  single  roots  with  or  without  suffixes. 

2.  Compound,  when  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  roots  or  stems;  »•# 
840,  III 

314.  ROOTS. — Roots  are  the  primitive  elements  out  of  which 
all  words  in  our  family  of  languages  have  been  formed. '    They  arc 
of  two  kinds : 

I.  PREDICATIVE  ROOTS,  also  called  VERBAL  ROOTS.*    These  designate  or 
Dame  objects,  actions,  or  qualities  :  es  in  es-t,  be  is ;  i  in  i-r<2,  to  go ;  due  in 
iuc-s=  dux,  leader;  doc  in  doe-ilis,  docile. 

II.  DEMONSTRATIVE  ROOTS,'  also  called  PRONOMINAL  ROOTS.     These  do  not 
name  objects  or  actions,  but  simply  point  out  the  relation  of  such  objects  or 
actions  to  the  speaker:  me  in  mei,  of  me;  tu  in  tul,  of  you;  *  in  is,  that,  that 
one,  he. 

315.  The  STEMS*  of  simple  words  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  :  Boot  Stems,  Primary  Stems,  and  Secondary  Stems. 

316.  ROOT  STEMS  are  either  identical  with  roots,  or  are  formed 
from  them  without  the  aid  of  suffixes : 

Due-is, '  of  a  leader,'  root-stem  due  ;  *  es-tig,  '  yon  are,'  root-stem  es  ;  reg-es, 
kings,'  root-stem  reg  ;  vdc-is, '  of  the  voice,'  root-stem  voc  ;  murmur-is,  '  of 
a  murmur,'  root-stem  murmur, 

317.  PRIMARY  STEMS  are  formed  from  roots  by  means  of  suf- 
fixes:' 


1  These  roots  were  probably  all  monosyllabic,  and  were  once  used  separately  as  words, 
but  not  as  parts  of  speech.  Thus  en,  the  root  of  sum.  «**«,  '  to  be.1  and  i.  the  root  of  t?>, 
Ire, '  to  go,'  were  doubtless  used  in  their  original  form,  as  significant  words,  long  before 
the  verbs  themselves  had  an  existence. 

3  Observe  that  from  this  class  of  roots,  whether  called  Predicative  or  Verbal,  may 
be  formed  the  stems,  not  only  of  verbs,  but  also  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and,  in  fact  of  ali 
the  parts  of  speech  except  pronouns. 

1  The  learner  should  note  the  difference  in  signification  between  Predicative  and 
Demoimtrative  Roots.  Thus  duo?  has  a  definite  meaning,  and  must  always  designati 
one  icho  leads;  while  the  pronoun  ego  Is  not  the  name  of  any  person  or  thing,  but  maj 
be  used  by  any  and  every  person  In  speaking  of  himself. 

4  The  learner  has  already  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  stems  in  the  inflection  «>f 
nouns,  adjectives,  etc. ;  but  steins,  like  roots,  were  probably  once  used  as  words. 

*  The  basis  of  every  inflected  word  is  u  stem.     Due  Is  therefore  the  stem  of  duc-i*, 
but  as  it  can  not  be  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form,  it  is  also  a  root.    According  to 
some  authorities,  rf.u,  the  stem  of  reg-es,  and  vftc,  the  stem  of  vf.c-eg,  are  not  roots,  but 
derived  from  more  primitive  forms—  reg  in  rtg-0,  and  voc  in  vnc-0 ;  according  to  othei 
authorities,  however,  rty  and  rfff  are  only  two  forms  of  the  same  root;  so  nlso  voc  and 
we,  due  and  diic.    The  stem  murmur  is  not  a  root,  but  formed  from  the  root  mut 
by  reduplication.     See  Cnrtius,  Chron.,  p.  25;  Schleicher,  pp.  841-850;  Meyer,  pp.  h 
371-3T6. 

•  Any  suffix  used  to  form  a  Primary  Stem  ii  c»llcd  a  Primary  Sitflla<;  see  355O. 


154  STEMS. 

BOOT.  SUFFIX.  STEM.  WORD. 

ar,  vo,  ar-vo,  ar-vu-m,1  field. 

fac,  to,  fac-to,  fac-tu-s,1  made. 

sta,  tu,  sta-tu,  sta-tu-s,  position. 

NOTE.. —  All  stems  formed  from  verb-stems  are  also  generally  classed  as  Primary 
Stems : 2  curd-tor,  '  guardian,' '  curator,'  from  curd, '  to  care  for,'  frem  cura, '  care.' 

318.  SECONDARY  STEMS  are  formed  from  other  stems*  by  means 
of  suffixes :  * 

STEM.  SUFFIX.  SECONDARY  STEM.  WORD. 

civi,5  co ;           civi-co,  civicus,  civic. 

victor,5  ill ;            victor-is,  victoria,  victory. 

victor,  ic ;            victor-ic,  victrix,6  victress. 

319.  THE  STEMS  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  or  more  stems,  or  of  a  stem  with  a  root : 

fu-era,*  fu-era-s,  you  had  been. 

grand-aevo,8  grand-aevu-s,  of  great  age. 

igni-color,'  igni-color,  fire-colored. 

magn-animo,10  magn-animu-s,  great-souled. 

NOTE  1. —  Words  are  formed  from  Stems  by  means  of  the  Suffixes  of  Inflection  ;  see 
46  and  202,  note  1. 

NOTE  2. —  A  single  root  often  gives  rise  to  a  large  class  of  forms.  Thus,  from  the  root 
sta,  '  to  stand,'  are  derived  — 

1.  The  numerous  forms  which  make  up  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  stS,  stare,  stetl, 
stdtum,  to  stand. 

2.  All  the  forms  of  the  verb  sisto,  sistere,  still,  statum,  '  to  place.' 

3.  Numerous  other  forms.    Thus  (1),  sta-bilis,  '  stable,'  '  firm,'  from  which  are  de- 
rived stabilio,  'to  make  firm';  stabilitds,  ' firmness,* and  stabiliter,  'firmly';  (2)  stabu- 
lum,  'a  standing  place,'  'stable,'  from  which  are  derived  stdbulo,  and  stab-ulor,  'to  have 
a  standing  place';  (3)  stamen,  'something  standing,'  'warp  in  an  upright  loom';  (4) 
statim,  'in  standing,'  'at  once';  (5)  statid,  'standing';  (6)  stativus,  'stationary';  (7) 
stator,  'a  stayer';  and  (8)  status,  'position,'  from  which  is  derived  statuo,  'to  place,' 
which  in  turn  becomes  the  basis  of  statua,  '  a  statue,'  and  statura,  '  stature.' 

1  Ar-vo-m  weakened  to  arvum,  fac-to-s  tofactus;  see  22,  2. 

•  This  is  a  matter  of  convenience,  as  new  stems,  or  words,  are  formed  from  verb-stems 
in  the  same  manner  as  from  roots  ;  see  Schleicher,  p.  347. 

1  Except  verb-stems.  Remember  that  steins  formed  from  verb-stems  are  treated  as 
Primary;  see  317,  note. 

*  Any  suffix  used  to  form  a  Secondary  stem  is  called  a  Secondary  suffix,  but  many 
suffixes  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary.     Thus  co  in  civicus  is  Secondary,  as  it 
is  added  to  a  stem  ;  but  in  locus,  '  place,'  it  is  Primary,  as  it  is  added  to  a  root. 

•  Civi  is  the  stem  of  clvis,  '  citizen ' ;  victor  of  victor,  '  conqueror ". 

•  For  vlctorix,  by  contraction.    • 

f  Compounded  of  root  fu  with  stem  era  from  the  root  es ;  see  2O3,  note  2,  and  243 , 

•  For  grandi-aevo. 

•Compounded  of  Igni,  the  stem  of  ignis,  'fire,*  and  of  color,  the  stem  of  color,  'color.' 
10 Compounded  of  magno,  the  stem  of  inagnus,  'great,' and  of  animo,  the  stem  of 
animus,  'sonl,'  magno-animo  becoming  magnanimo. 


SUFFIXES. 


155 


320.  SUFFIXES. — Most  suffixes1  appear  to  have  been  formed 
from  a  comparatively  small  number  of  primitive  elements  called 

PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


L 

Il.a 

EXAMPLES. 

*, 

a,3  o,  e,  e,  i, 
6,u, 

a  and  o  in  nouns  and  adjectives,  6  in  nouns, 
and  e,  i,  5,  and  u  in  verbs  :  scnd-a,  writer  ; 
fug-a,  flight  :  jug-o,  Nom.  jug-u-mf  yoke  ; 
fid-i,  Nom.  fid-'e-s,  faith;  reg-ef  rule  thou; 
reg-i-s,  you  rule  ;  reg-0,  1  rule  ;  reg-w-nt,  they 
rule. 

i, 

i, 

in  a  few  nouns:  <K>-*',  Nom.  av-i-s,  bird;  aro-it 
Nom.  arc-i-s,  arc-s*  arx,  citadel. 

«, 

u, 

in  nouns  :  T  ac-u,  Nom.  ae-w-s,  needle. 

an, 

on,  8n,  en, 
in, 

denoting  either  the  ACT  or  the  AGENT;  atperg- 
on,  Nom.  aspergfr*  (G.  t»*s),  sprinkling;  ger- 
6n,  gerd*  (G.  dm»\  a  carrier;  pect-en  (G.  inis)t 
a  comb. 

ant,* 

ent,  unt. 

in  present  participles  :  10  audient-s,™  audiens, 
hearing  ;  ab-es-ent-e,  ob-sens^  •  absent  ;  amd- 
ent-t,  amdns,  loving. 

1  Most  suffixes  appear  to  be  of  pronominal  origin,  1.  P.,  from  pronominal  stems  or 
roots,  but,  according  to  Bopp,  Corssen,  and  others,  a  few  may  be  of  verbal  origin.  Thus 
In  several  suffixes  beginning  with  b  —seen  in  ber,  bilis,  buliim,  etc.— Corssen  recognizes 
the  root  bhar  =  ftr  in  /«r-0, '  to  bear ' ;  in  some  beginning  with  t — seen  in  ter,  tor,  turns, 
etc.  —the  root  tor, '  to  accomplish ' ;  in  some  beginning  with  c — seen  in  c«r,  culum,  erum, 
etc. — the  root  ka/r  =  c«r,  ere  in  cre-0,  '  to  make.1  For  a  discussion  of  the  subject,  see 
Bopp,  III.,  pp.  186-201 ;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  567;  II.,  pp.  40,  68;  Schleicher,  p.  448. 

1  Column  I.  shows  the  suffix  in  its  mtpponed  original  form,  while  column  II.  showj 
the  various  forms  which  the  suffix  has  assumed  in  Latin. 

s  Originally  long  in  Latin  in  feminine  forms ;  see  21,  2, 1). 

•  Observe  that  these  suffixes  form  utemit,  not  ea*e«.    Sometimes  the  Nominative  Sing- 
ular is  in  form  identical  with  the  stem  ;  but  in  most  cases,  the  Nominative  is  formed 
from  the  stem  by  adding  the  Nominative  suffix,  as  «  in  Ji<lt-x.  m  in  jugu-m  forjugo-m 
(<>  weakened  to  u,  22,  2). 

•  Observe  that  the  Present  stem  takes  the  several  forms,  rey-e,  rey-i,  reg-fi,  rtg--u ; 
but  see  page  118,  foot-note  5. 

•  Often  thus  dropped;  sometimes  changed  to  *,  f:  mart,  mare,  §e»;  caedt,  ca«de, 
caedf-*,  slaughter. 

7  Also  in  adjectives,  in  union  with  i  making  vi:  ttn-tii-*,  thin. 

•  .y dropped;  see  36,  5,  8). 

'  This  is  the  base  of  several  compound  suffixes:  ent  o,  ent-id,  ent-io — Nom.  ent- 
um,  ent-ia,  and  ent-iwn  ;  flu-tnt-nm,  stream ;  *apl-ent-ia,  wisdom ;  til-ent-inin,  silence 
«  Also  in  a  few  adjectives  and  nouns :  frequ-mt-t,  frequenx,  frequent;  fiari-ent-a 
partns.    Here  «  is  the  Nominative  ending. 


15G 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — (Continued.} 


I. 

II. 

EXAMPLES. 

aa, 

j*'  =  ya, 

os,   us,  es,1 
es.  or,  ur, 

ia,5  io,  ie, 

gen-os,  gen-w?  birth  ;  corp-us*  body  ;  nub-es, 
cloud  ;  rob-ur,3  strength  ;  sop-or  (21,  2),  sleep. 

ia  and  io  in  adjectives  ;  ie  in  nouns  :  ex-im-ia, 
ex-im-io,  Nom.  ex-im-iu-s,  ex-im-ia,  ex-im- 
iu-m,  select;  fac-ie,  Nom.  fac-it-s,  appear- 
ance. 

ja«  =  ya, 

e,  i,  id,  iu, 

in  verb':  cap-el  take  thou;  cap-e-re,  to  take; 
cap-i-s,  you  take  •  cap-i-mus,  we  take  ;  cap- 
id,  I  take  ;  cap-iu-nt,  they  take. 

jans'  = 

yans, 

ids,  idr,  ius, 
J&-,  8r, 

in  comparatives  :  may-ids,  mag-ior,  ma-jdr,  Nom. 
ma-jor  (21,  2),  greater;  min-or,  min-or  (31, 
2),  smaller  ;  see  163,  165. 

ka, 

ca,co, 

rare  :  8  pau-cd,  pau-co,  pau-cus,  a,  WTO,  small  ; 
lo-co,  locus,  place. 

la, 

11,  lo,  li, 

see  ra. 

ma,9 

ml,  mo, 

fSr-ma,  form  ;  pri-mo,  pri-mws,  first  ;  sup-mo, 
sum-nw  (34,  3),  sum^mus,  highest;  al-rno, 
al^mus,  cherishing. 

1  This  hiiftix  seems  to  be  used  in  forming  the  Latin  Infinitive,  in  origin  the  Dative  of 
a  verbal  noun  :  rtg-es-e,  reg-ere  (31, 1),  'to  rule' — lit.,/«r  ruling :  e  is  the  Dative  end- 
ing (67,  note);  see  Schleicher,  p.  472.  See  also  page  81,  foot-note  2. 

a  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2);  in  early  Latin  o,  in  classical  Latin  u  in  Nominative 
Singular,  e  in  other  cases.  We  thus  have  in  early  Latin  o«  in  gen-os,  and  in  classical 
Latin  n«  in  gen-tu,  and  en  changed  to  er  (31, 1)  in  gen-er-is,  gen-er-i,  etc.  Words  of 
this  class  take  no  Nominative  ending. 

3  With  variable  vowel — o,  u.    We  thus  have  corp-u*,  corp-or-is^  with  s  changed  to 
r  (31,  1).    8  final  is  also  changed  to  r  in  robur;  see  31,  2. 

*  Doubtless  a  pronominal  stem.    It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix  (page  154,  foot- 
note 4) :  pater-io,  patr-io,  Nom.  patr-ius,  paternal;  v'>ctf>r-ia,  victory;  luxur-ia,  lnx- 
ur-ieJi,  luxury;  see  325. 

4  Originally  long  in  Latin,  see  31,  2, 1). 

•  Probably  the  verbal  root  ja,  identical  with  i  in  ire,  to  go.    So  explained  by  Curtius. 
Verbuin,  I.,  pp.  290-295.    Ja  was  also  used  as  a  secondary  suffix,  appended  to  the  stems 
of  nouns  and  adjectives,  in  forming  denominative  verbs;  see  335,  foot-note. 

7  This  suffix  is  generally  secondary:   alt-ior,  alt-ins,  higher;  ttapient-ior,  wiser; 
gee  163. 

8  It  seems  to  appear  without  its  final  vowel  in  some  nouns  in  a- :  ape-c-*,  apex,  point, 
top.    It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix:  c'tri-co,  c>vi-cu»,  civic  (330);  and  is  also 
used  in  compound  suffixes,  as  cu-fo,  ci-no.  ti-co :  Jlf>K-cu-lui>,  a  small  flower ;  »<7rt-ci-w  «*, 
prophetic.    See  Schleicher,  p.  478;  Corssen,  II..  pp.  205,  806.  307. 

'  This  is  also  an  element  in  ti-ma,  fi-mo,  si-md,  si-mo,  is-si-mfi,  is-si-mo:  op-ti 
mug,  a,  urn,  best;  a It-in-sl  mu».  higbeft. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — (Continued.) 


I. 

IL 

EXAMPLES. 

man,1 

men,    miii.' 
moii. 

denoting  the  MEANS  of  the  action,  sometimes 
the  ACT  itself,  or  its  RESULT  :  tegri-men,  or  tHj- 
men*  a  covering;  no-men^  name;  certd-men, 
contest  ;  ser-mon,  ser-jnd,4  discourse. 

na,' 

na.  no, 

1.  in  adjectives  with  the  force  of  perfect  parti- 
ciples:8 plena,  pie-no,  ple-nus,  a,  u?n,  filled, 
full;  reff-no,  reff-num,  kingdom,  that  which 
is  ruled. 
2.  in  nouns  and  adjectives  with  various  mean- 
ings :  •  top-no,  som-no  (33,  3,  note),  som-nus, 
sleep. 

ni, 

ni,7 

Ig-ni,  tff-nis,  fire  ;  pd-ni,  pd-nis,  bread. 

nu, 

nu, 

very  rare  :  ma-mt,  ma-nus,  hand. 

ra,«la, 

rS,  ro,  la, 
lo,li, 

ag-ro  (agrus),  ager,  field;  sac-ro  (sac-rug),  facer, 
sac-ra,  sac-rum,  sacred  ;  sed-ld,  sel-la  (34,  2), 
seat  ;  cande-la,  a  light  ;  te-lo,  te-lum,  weapon  ; 
doci-li,  doci-lis^  docile. 

ta,' 

ta,  to,  si, 
so, 

1.  in  perfect  participles  :  10  amd-ti),  amd-ttis,  a, 
•urn,  loved;  plaud-to,  plan-to  (35,  3),  plau- 
svs,  applauded  ;  cond-tux,  having  tried  ;  prdn- 
sus,  having  taken  lunch. 
2.  in  a  few  adjectives  :  sex-to,  sex-tun^  sixth. 

1  This  is  an  element  In  men-to,  ms>n-id\,  and  msm-io:  nf/tri-men-tum,  cutriment; 
qutri-mfin-ia,  complaint;  texti-mSn-ium  (secondary  suffix),  testimony. 

1  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2).  The  suffix  man  is  weakened  to  wen  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Su^ular,  and  to  mi»  in  the  other  cases. 

*  For  gno-men,  'name,'  the  meant  by  which  one  is  known. 
4  N  is  dropped ;  see  36,  5,  8). 

'  Nearly  equivalent  to  ta.    In  some  languages  It  forma  passive  participles  like  to.. 

*  Often  secondary :  pater-no,  p/iter-nun,  paternal;  sometimes  preceded  by  <7,  ?,  or  I : 
font-a-nvg,  of  a  fountain;  can-1-nus,  canine;  ali-f-nu#,  belonging  to  another;  see  327, 
329,  and  330. 

7  As  fa  and  na  are  closely  related  in  meaning  and  use,  so  are  H  and  nl.     They  art 
sometimes  united  in  the  same  suffix  :  ti-fi-ni  (32G). 

8  Rn  and  la  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  sufflx.    In  Latin  and  Greek  this 
suffix  often  forms  verbal  adjectives  which  sometimes  pass  into  nouns  :  gna-nu,  'know- 
ing,' from  (/nd  in  no-scd,  '  to  know' ;  Sii-pov.  'gift,'  '  something  given.'  from  80  In  SiSuifn. 
'to  give.' 

*  In  the  form  of  ti  it  is  the  first  element  In  ti-rmi»,  a,  urn  :  op-M-mu*,  best ;  and  the 
second  element  in  ix-tti-»iut>,  a,  um  :  alt-i*-«i-mu*,  highest.    In  the  form  of  t<i,  it  is  the 
first  element  in  t'l-ti,  shortened  to  t  It:  clvi-td#  =  ctri-tat-n,  state. 

10  Often  becoming  adjectives  or  non,n»;  al-to,  al-tut,  high  ;  n*~i-tut,  son. 


ir.H 


DERIVATION   OF   WORDS. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — (Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

EXAMPLES. 

tar, 

ter,  t6r, 

see  tra. 

ti,1 

ti,*  si, 

in  verbal  nouns  :  ves-ti,  vet-tis,  garment  ;  met-ti, 
met-tis,  messis  (35,  3),  reaping,  harvest. 

tu, 

t*,' 

in  verbal  nouns,  including  supines  :  sta-tu:  sta- 
tus,  standing;  i-tu,  i-tus,  going;  dic-tu  (su- 
pine), in  telling,  to  tell. 

tar,4tra,4 

ter,  tor,  tro, 

ter6  and  tor  denoting  AGENCY;  tro,  MEANS: 
pa-ter,  father;  master,  mother;  vic-tor,  con- 
queror ;  audi-tor,  hearer  ;  ard-trum,  plough. 

va, 

vo,  uo, 

in  nouns  and  adjectives  :  ar-vo,  ar-vum,  ploughed 
field  ;  vac-uo,  vac-uus,  empty. 

SECTION    II. 

DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. 

FORMATION    OF    NOUNS    BY    SUFFIXES. 

I.  FROM  THE  STEMS  OF  OTHER  NOUNS. 

321.  DIMINUTIVES  generally  end  in — 

lus,  la,  him;   ulus.  ula,  ulum ;   culua,  cula,  culum : 


1  Ti  Is  the  first  element  in  ti-a,  ti-o,  ti-e,  ti-o-ni,,  ti-on  (i  dropped) :  jftgti-tia,  jus- 
tice; serm-tio,  servi-tium,  service;  duri-tie,  duri-Hes,  hardness;  sta-tifm,  sta-tio  (n 
dropped),  station. 

2  /often  disappears;  men-ti,  men-tis,  men-ttt^  mens  (36,  2),  mind. 

8  Tu  is  the  first  element  in  the  suffixes,  tu-d.  tu-o;  tu-ti,  tut,  and  tu-don:  sta-tna. 
statue;  mor-tuus,  dead;  serm-tfiti,  serm-tf/t  (xerm-tiitx).  serri-tfis.  servitude;  tiirjsi- 
tf/don,  ttirpi-tftdo  (n  dropped),  turpitude. 

4  Perhaps  of  verbal  origin  (32O,  foot-note  1).    This  suffix  seems  to  be  the  basis  of 
several  compound  suffixes  :  tf-r-id,  tftr-io,  turd,  tfiro,  trie  for  tdr-i-c,  etc. ;  see  examples, 
394,  326.  33O. 

5  Ter  is  used  in  names  denoting  family  relationship,  originally  AGENCY  :  pa-ttr, 
lit.  protector,  from  the  root  pa,  to  protect. 

•  For  the  convenience  of  the  learner  the  suffixes  are  given  in  the  Nominative  form, 
i.  e.,  with  the  Nominative  ending  and  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Observe  that  the  stem 
suffix  in  lu-s  and  lu-m  is  lo.  The  endings,  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  were  developed  irregularly 
after  the  analogy  of  u-lus,  u-la,  u-lum  in  such  words  as  hortu-lus,  virgu-lus,  oppidu- 
lum,  where  the  «  is  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Thus  the  u  in  reg-u-lus  and  eapit-u-lum 
is  an  Irregularity  introduced  from  the  Diminutives  of  a  and  o  stems.  Lus,  to,  him  are 
formed  from  the  suffix  la  or  ra.  often  used  in  forming  Primary  Stems  (320).  Culun, 
cula,  culum  are  compound  suffixes  in  which  the  first  part,  CM,  is  formed  from  the  suffix, 
originally  ka,  modified  in  Latin  to  co,  cu,  seen  in  lo-co-s,  locus,  place ;  see  320,  ka,  foot-nota 


NOUNS. 


lob 


filio-lus, 

fllio-la, 

atrio-lum, 

alveo-lus, 

hortu-lus, 

virgu-la, 

oppidu-lum, 

reg-ulus, 

capit-ulum, 

flos-culus, 

parti-cula, 

munus-culum, 


from 


a  little  daughter, 
a  small  hall, 
a  small  cavity, 
a  small  garden, 
a  small  branch, 
a  small  town, 
a  petty  king, 
a  small  head, 
a  small  flower, 
a  small  part, 
a  small  present, 


filius, 

son. 

filia, 

daugJUer. 

atrium, 

hall. 

alveus, 

cavity. 

hortus, 

garden. 

virga, 

branch. 

oppidum, 

town. 

rex, 

king. 

caput, 

head. 

flos, 

flower. 

pars, 

part. 

munus. 

present. 

\.  Lus,  la,  lum,  are  appended  to  a  and  o  stems;  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  to 
Dental  and  Guttural  stems  ;  culus,  cula,  culum,  to  e,  i,  and  u  stems,  anti 
to  Liquid  and  s  stems  ;  see  examples. 

2.  Before  lus,  la,  lum,  the  stem-vowels  a  and  o  take  the  form  of  o 
after  e  or  i,  and  the  form  of  u  in  other  situations  :  fllio-lus,  fllio-la  for 
flliO-la,  hortu-lus  for  horto-lus. 

3.  Before  culus,  cula,  culum,  stems  in  u  change  u  into  i,  and  stems 
in  on  change  o  into  u:  versi-culus,  'a  little  verse,'  from  versus;  homun- 
cufus,  '  a  small  man,'  from  homb.     Like  nouns  in  on,  a  few  other  words 
form  diminutives  in  un-culus,  un-cula  :  av-unculus,  '  maternal  uncle,'  from 
avus,  '  grandfather.'  l 

4.  El  lus,  el-la,  el  lum,  il-lus,  il-la,  il-lum,*  are  used  when  the  stem 
of  the  primitive  ends  in  a  or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r  :  ocel-lus*  '  smaU 
eye,'  from  oculus  ;  fdbel-la,  'short  fable,"  from  f  fibula  ;  vll-lum*  'a  small 
wine,'  from  vlnum. 

NOTE.—  The  endings  leus  and  cifi  occur:  ecu-lem,9  *a  small  hor»e,'  from  eguus; 
homun-dli,  '  a  small  man,'  from  homo. 

322.  PATRONYMICS,  or  names  of  DESCENT,  generally  end  in  — 
des,  stem-suffix  da,  masculine  ;  a  for  ds,  stem-suffix  d,  feminine. 

Tantali-dgs,         son  of  Tantalus  ;          Tantali-s,         dangliter  of  Tantalus.4 
The'sl-des,  son  of  Tlieseus  ;  Th6s5i-s,          daugliter  of  Theseus. 

Thestia-dSs,        son  of  Tfieslius  ;  Thestia-s,         daughter  of  Thcstius. 

NOTB.—  The  suffix  ne,  preceded  by  7  or  f>.  is  sometimes  used  in  forming  feminine  Pat 
ronymlcs:  Neptiini-nf,  <iaught«:r  of  Neptune;  Acfivio-nf,  daughter  of  Acrisius. 


>  Nubl-eula,  pltbe-cuta,  and  vulpe-cula  are  formed  as  If  from  e-fi 
s  The  syllables  el  and  U  do  not  belong  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a  slight  chango 
in  the  stem.    The  quantity  of  the  vowel  e  or  i  Is  therefore  determined  by  the  primitive  • 
thus,  oculus,  oculu-ltm  =  octtl-lus  =  ocel-lus;  vlnitm,  n'mu-lum  =  nln-lum  =  vil-lum. 

3  Also  written  equu/eun,  but  eculews  it  the  approved  form. 

4  The  vowel  preceding  the  suffix  Is  usually  i,  &s  in  Tantali-dfs,  Tantali-s,  modified 
from  the  stein-vowel  o.     Primitives  In  eu#  generally  change  eu  to  i  or  ei,  :i«  in  Tfifn'i- 
dfs,  ThesH-ft;  and  primitives  in  iwi  change  stem-vowel  o  to  a,  as  in  IhesMa-dt* 
Other  nouns  sometimes  form  Patronymics  after  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  ius:  L&frtiadet, 
•on  of  t^aertes.    Aenfi'isbas  Attitudes,  masculine,  and  Aenfti,  feminine. 


160  DERIVATION  OF   WORDS. 

323.  DESIGNATIONS  OF  PLACE  are  often  formed  with  the  endings- 

arium,  etum,  turn,  lie.1 

columb-firium,  a  dovecot,  from          columba,  dove. 

querc-Stum,  a  forest  of  oaks,  quercus,  oak. 

sallc-tum,  a  thicket  of  willows,  sallx,  willow. 

ov-Ile,  a  sheepfold,  ovis,  sheep. 

1.  Arium  designates  the  PLACE  where  anything  is  kept,  a  receptacle: 
zerdrium,  '  treasury,'  from  aes,  money. 

2.  Etum,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the  PLACE 
where  they  flourish :  ollvetum,  '  an  olive-grove,'  from  oliva,  ' olive-tree.' 

3.  lie,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  STALL  or  FOLD  : 
bovlle,  '  stall  for  cattle,'  from  bos,  stem  bov. 

4.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Aestu-drium,  'tidal  bay,'  from  aestus,  'tide' ;  avi-drium,  'aviary,'  from  avis, 
'bird';  don-drium,  'place  for  oiferings,'  from  donum,  'gift';  pom-drium, 
4  orchard,'  from  poniwm,  '  fruit ' ;  aescul-etum,  '  forest  of  oaks,'  from  aesculm^ 
'  oak ' ;  pm-etttm,  '  pine-forest,'  from  plnus,  '  pine ' ;  ros-etum,  '  rose-bed,' 
from  rosa,  '  rose ' ;  vin-etum,  '  vineyard,'  from  vlnum,  '  vine ' ;  virgul-tttm, 
'  a  thicket,'  from  virgula,  '  bush ' ;  capr-ile,  '  goat-stall,'  from  caper,  '  goat.' 

324.  DERIVATIVES  are  also  formed  with  several  other  endings, 
especially  with — 

arius,  id,  ium.  itium,  ma,  imonium,  itas,  tus,  atus.2 
statu-arius,  a  statuary,          from        statua,  statue. 


mul-io,  muleteer, 

sacerdot-ium,  priesthood, 

serv-itium,  servitude, 

rgg-ina,  queen, 

patr-imonium,  patrimony, 

clv-itas,  citizenship, 

vir-tus,  virtue, 

consul-atus,  consulship, 


mulus,  mule. 

sacerdos,  priest. 

servus,  slave. 

rex,  king. 

pater,  father. 

civis,  citizen. 

vir,  man. 

consul,  consul. 


1.  Arius  and  i8  generally  designate  PERSONS  by  their  occupations. 

2.  Ium  and  itium  denote  OFFICE,  CONDITION,  or  COLLECTION  :  servitiurn, 
servitude,  sometimes  a  collection  of  servants. 

1  Arium  and  lie  are  the  endings  of  neuter  adjectives  used  substantively  (33O).  The 
vowels  a  and  I  were  probably  developed  out  of  the  stem -vowel  of  the  primitive,  but  they 
were  afterward  treated  as  a  part  of  tbe  suffix.  For  an  explanation  of  such  vowels,  see  33O, 
foot-noto.  Many  derivative  endings  were  thus  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  certain 
•  suffixes  with  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive ;  accordingly,  when  added  to  vowel  stems, 
they  generally  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel:  colwnb-a,  columb-arium ;  quere-o, 
ijuerc-Stum. 

*  Amis  is  identical  In  origin  with  the  adjective  ending  ririus  (33O),  and  atus  with 
atun  In  participles.  In  each  the  initial  a  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 
ha  is  the  same  formation  as  the  adjective  ending  inm  (330).  On  i-tium,  i-nifmiutn, 
i-t<ix,  and  tf<*.  see  ti.  ta,  tit.  man,  mon,  with  foot-notes,  320;  remember  that  the  initiai 
•  WM  developed  from  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 


NOUNS.  161 

3.  Ina  and  imonium  are  used  with  some  variety  of  signification  ;  see 
examples  imder  7  below. 

4.  Itas  and  tus  designate  some  CHARACTERISTIC  or  CONDITION  :  hirtd-i- 
i/ls,  'heirship/  from  hires,  'heir';  virtus,  'manliness,'  'virtue,'  from  vir. 

5.  Atus  denotes  RANK,  OFFICE,  COLLECTION  :  consulutus,  '  consulship,' 
from  consul  ;  senutus,  '  senate,'  'collection  of  old  men,'  from  senex. 

6.  For  PATRIAL  or  GENTILE  NOUNS,  see  831,  note  1. 

NOTE.  —  The  endings  ago,  Igo,  and  Qgo  *  also  occur  :  vir-ago,  '  heroic  maiden,1  from 
vir,  'hero  '  ;  ferr-ugo,  '  iron-rust,'  frovafemum,  '  iron.1 

7.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are  — 

Libr-arius,  '  transcriber  of  books,'  from  liber,  '  book  ';  lign-arlus,  '  joiner,' 
from  lignum,  '  wood  '  ;  quadrtg-drius,  '  driver  of  a  four-horse  chariot,'  from 
quadriga,  '  four-horse  chariot  '  ;  arbitr-ium,  '  decision,'  from  arbiter,  'arbiter  '; 
conjug-ium,  '  wedlock,'  from  conjunx,  '  spouse  '  ;  magis-ter-ium,  '  presidency,' 
from  magis-ter,  'president';  oa-tium,  'door,'  from  6s,  'mouth';  gall-lna, 
'  hen,'  fromgallus,  '  cock  '  ;  doctr-lna,  for  doctor-ma,  '  doctrine,'  from  doctor, 
'  learned  mau,'  '  doctor  '  ;  mair-imonium,  '  matrimony,'  from  mater,  '  moth- 
er '  ;  aedll-itds,  '  office  of  edile,'  from  aedilis,  '  edile  '  ;  auctor-Uas,  '  authority,' 
from  auctor,  '  founder,'  '  author  '  ;  senec-tus,  '  old  age,'  from  senex,  '  old  man  '; 
,*  'office  of  tribune,'  from  tribunus,  'tribune.' 


II.  NOUNS  FROM  ADJECTIVES. 

325.  From  Adjectives   are  formed  various  ABSTRACT  NOTJNS 
with  the  endings  — 

ia,  itia,  ta,  tas,  itas,  tus,  edo,  itude,  imonia.3 


diligentria, 

diligence,            from        diligens, 

diligent. 

superb-ia, 
amlc-itia, 

haughtiness, 
friendship, 

superbus, 
amlcus, 

haughty, 
friendly. 

juven-ta, 

youth, 

juvenis, 

young. 

liber-tas, 

freedom, 

liber, 

free. 

bon-itas, 

goodness, 

bonus, 

good. 

pi-etas,4 

piety, 

pius, 

pious. 

juven-tus, 

i/outh, 

juvenis, 

young. 

dulc-odO, 
sol-itfido, 

sweetness, 
solitude, 

(lulris, 
solus, 

sweet, 
alone. 

acr-im8nia, 

sharpness,                          acer, 

sharp. 

1  These  endings  were  formed,  according  to  Coresen,  by  appending  the  suffix  an  to 
ay,  the  root  of  ago,  to  put  in  motion,  make,  do  ;  see  Coresen,  I.,  p.  ffTT. 

1  As  if  formed  from  a  verb,  triWno,  fire,  like  equit-atw,  'cavalry,1  from  equito, 
Sre,  'to  ride,1  from  eques,  'a  horseman.1 

*  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
Originally  the  initial  I  in  i-tia,  l-tds,  i-tttd$,  and  Imonia  formed  no  part  of  the  suffix, 
but  represented  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive.  On  ia,  tia,  and  ta,  eeeja,  tl,  and  ta, 
3J8O  ;  on  i-tas  and  tus,  see  page  160,  foot-note  2  ;  on  i-tttdo  and  i-m5nia,  see  tu  and 
man,  33O.  The  original  of  V-ilo,  S-din  is  obscure. 

«  For  pi-itds  by  dissimilation  (26). 

12 


162 


DERIVATION  OF   WORDS. 


NOTK  1.— Instead  of  ia  and  itia,  ies  and  ftitg  occur:  pauper,  pauper-itg,  poverty. 
durug,  dur-itia  or  dur-ititg,  hardness. 

NOTE  2.— Before  tag  the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  sometimes  slightly  changed :  facilia, 
facuU&g,  faculty ;  difflcilis,  difficultag,  difficulty ;  pottns,  potegtds,  power. 

NOTE  8.— A  few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  itds  and  itiidd :  jftrmus,  firm- 
ittjg,  firmitfid6,  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in  tus  often  suffer  contraction  before 
these  endings  i  honestds  for  honest-itas,  '  honesty,'  from  honeatug ;  so/ licit  i~/ do,  for  sol~ 
Ocit-itudd, '  solicitude,1  from  sollicitug. 

1.  OTHEK  EXAMPLES  are — 

Auddc-ia, '  boldness,'  from  auddx, '  bold ' ;  jftgt-itia,  'justice,'  from  Justus, 
just';  gaev-itia,  'cruelty,'  from  saevus,  'cruel';  senec-ta,  'old  age,'  from 
senex,  '  old ' ;  aequdl-itdt,  '  equality,'  from  aequdlis,  '  equal ' ;  edr-itds,  '  dear, 
ness,'  from  cdrus, '  dear ' ;  &nxi-etds,  '  anxiety,'  from  Snxius,  '  anxious ' ;  al' 
itudd,  'height,'  fromafttw,  'high';  fort-itudS,  'bravery,'  from  fortis,  'brave*; 
mdffn-itudd,  'greatness,'  from  mdgmts,  'great.' 

HI.  NOUNS  FROM  VERBS  AND  PROM  ROOTS. 
326.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed  nu- 
merous nouns  with  the  suffixes — * 

ter,  tor,2  trlx,  trum,  tura,  tus,  ti&,  16.' 


pa-ter, 
frft-ter, 

father,          from  the  root     pa, 
brother,                                     bhra,  fra, 

to  protect, 
to  support. 

anifi-tor, 

lover,                                       ama-re, 

to  love. 

audl-tor, 

hearer, 

audl-re, 

to  hear. 

defen-sor, 

defender, 

d6fend-ere, 

to  defend 

vfina-tor, 

hunter, 

vena-rl, 

to  hunt. 

v6na-trlx, 

huntress, 

(                            u 

it 

gubernft-trix, 

directress, 

guberna-re, 

to  direct. 

ara-trum, 

plough, 

ara-re, 

to  plough. 

r6s-trum,4 

beak, 

*               rod-ere, 

to  gnaw. 

pic-tor, 

painter,                                    ping-ere, 

to  paint. 

plc-tflra, 

painting, 

" 

u-sura,5 

using,                                        flt-I, 

to  use. 

audl-tus, 

hearing,                                   audl-re, 

to  hear. 

vl-sus,' 

sight,                                         vid-6re, 

to  see. 

audl-tio, 

Jiearing,                                    audl-re, 

to  hear. 

moni-ti5,6 

advising,                                   mong-re, 

to  advise. 

vl-sio,6 

seeing,                                     vid-ere, 

to  see. 

leg-io, 

a  selecting,                                leg-ere, 

to  select. 

occld-io, 

a  slaying,                                  occld-ere, 

to  slay. 

'  These  endings  appear  to  be  true  suffixes,  a*  they  do  not  contain  the  stem-vowel  ot 
the  primitive. 

*  For  the  phonetic  change  by  which  t  In  tor,  tura,  etc.,  unites  with  a  preceding  d  or 
t  and  produces  **  or  *,  as  in  def end-tor,  defengor,  see  35,  8,  2). 

*  On  ter,  tor,  trix,  and  tura,  see  tar,  tra ;  on  tug  and  tid,  see  tu  and  U :  and  on  it*. 
•ee  ja,  320. 

4  For  rod-trwm  ;  see  35,  8, 1). 

*  For  ut-tura,  vid-tug,  vid-tifi ;  ae*  36  S  8> 
'  From  item  moni,  seen  in  mom-farn 


NOUNS.  163 

1.  Ter,  tor,  and  trlx  designate  the  AGENT  or  DOER  ;  trum,  the  MEANS 
of  the  action ;  and  tura,  tus,  tid,  and  16,  the  ACT  itself ;  see  examples. 
But  nouns  in  tus  and  16  sometimes  become  concrete,  and  denote  the  RESULT 
of  the  action :  quaes-tus,  '  gain,'  from  quaes-ere,  '  to  gain ' ;  leg-id,  '  a  select- 
ing '  and  then  '  a  legion '  (the  men  selected),  from  leg-ere,  '  to  select ' ;  ex- 
srci-tus,  '  exercise,'  '  drill,'  and  then  '  an  army '  (a  collection  of  trained 
men),  from  exerce-re,  '  to  exercise.' 

2.  Us,  a,  6 '  sometimes  designate  the  AGENT  of  the  action :  coqu-us  = 
ooquus,  cook,  from  coqu-ere,  to  cook ;  scrlb-a,  writer,  from  scrlb-ere  ;  err-6, 
wanderer,  from  err-dre. 

NOTE  I.— Tor,  trix,  tfira,  and  tits  are  sometimes  added  to  noun  stems  with  or  with- 
out change :  vid-tor,  'traveler,'  from  via,  'way';  sena-tor,  'senator,'  from  senea  (Geni- 
tive seni«,  stem  sen),  '  old  man ' ;  jdni-tor,  'janitor,'  and  jdni-tr'i-c, ' janitrix,'  from  jiln- 
ua,  'gate';  Utterd-tura,  'writing,'  from  ttttera,  'letter1;  consul-d-*us,  'consulship,' 
from  consul,  'consul.' 

NOTE  2. — For  nouns  in  id  from  the  stems  of  other  nouns,  see  324,  with  1. 

3.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Accusd-tor,  'accuser,'  from  accusa-re,  'to  accuse';  euro-tor,  'keeper,' 
from  euro-re, '  to  take  care  of ;  da4or, '  giver,'  from  da-re,  '  to  give ' ;  vic- 
tor, '  victor,'  from  vinc-ere,3  'to  conquer' ;  inven-trix,  'a  female  discoverer,' 
from  inven-ire,  'to  discover';  monstrum  =  mon-es-trum,3  'prodigy,'  from 
mon-ere,  '  to  admonish ' ;  rds-trum,  '  rake,'  from  rdd-ere,  '  to  rake,'  '  scrape ' ; 
arma-tura, '  arming,'  '  equipment,'  from  armd-re, '  to  arm ' ;  nd-tura, '  birth,' 
'nature,'  from  nd-sci,4  'to  be  born';  scrip-tura,  for  tcrib-tura,6  'writing,' 
from  scrib-ere, '  to  write ' ;  de-tug,  for  ag-tutf  '  driving,'  '  act,'  from  ag-ere, '  to 
drive,' '  act ' ;  dc-ti$,  for  ay-tio, '  action,'  from  ag-ere,  '  to  act ' ;  moni-ti6,  '  act 
of  admonishing,'  from  mone-re,  'to  admonish';  mon^itus,  'admonition,'  from 
mone-re,  '  to  admonish ' ;  opln-i6,  '  opinion,'  from  opln-drl,  '  to  think ' ;  opt- 
65, '  choice,'  from  opt-dre, '  to  choose.' 

327.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed 
nouns  with  the  suffixes — 

or,  u»,  eg,  ies,  ium,  en,  men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  bulum, 
culum.  brum,1  cram,  num.8 


1  Oand  ti,  the  stems  of  us  and  ",  are  only  different  forms  of  the  suffix  a  ;  and  on,  th>. 
jtem  of  f>,  fin  in,  is  from  the  suffix  an  ;  lee  320. 
9  Root  vie. 

*  With  the  compound  suffix  es-trum,  from  as-tra;  see  an  and  tra,  3XO. 

*  Root»uJ. 

•  See  33, 1. 

•  Observe  change  in  quantity:  ag-ere,  dc-tu*i  see  Gellius,  IX.,  8. 

7  On  the  forms  bulum,  brum,  culum,  crum,  see  35,  2,  foot-note  3. 

8  On  or  (for  off),  UK,  and  is,  see  as  ;  on  ifg  and  ium,  see  jn  ;  on  en,  see  an ;  on  men,, 
mentum,  mfmia,  and  mfmium,  see  man  ;  on  num,  see  no—  all  in  320 ;  on  bulum,  brunt, 
ntlum,  arum,  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  40. 


164 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


am-or, 

love,                    from      am-are, 

to  lovf 

tim-or, 

fear, 

tim-ere, 

to  fear. 

gen-us, 

birth,   . 

gen  in  gign-ere, 

to  tear. 

frfgus, 

cold, 

frfg-ere,1 

to  be  cold. 

s6d-es, 

seat, 

sed-ere,f 

to  sit. 

fac-iSs, 

make,  face, 

fac-ere, 

to  make. 

gaud-ium, 

joy, 

gaud-ere, 

to  rejoice. 

stud-ium, 

zeal,  study, 

stud-ere, 

to  be  zealout 

pect-en, 

a  comb, 

pect-ere, 

to  comb. 

flu-men, 

a  stream, 

flu-ere, 

to  flow. 

orna-mentum, 

ornament, 

Crna-re, 

to  adorn. 

queri-m6nia, 

complaint, 

querf, 

to  complain  . 

ali-m5nium, 

nourishment, 

ale-re, 

to  nourish. 

voca-bulum, 

appellation, 

voca-re, 

to  call. 

vehi-culum, 

vehicle, 

vehe-re, 

to  carry. 

d6lu-brum, 

shrine, 

delu-ere, 

to  cleanse. 

simula-crum, 

image, 

simula-re, 

to  represent. 

r6g-num, 

reign, 

reg-ere, 

to  rule. 

1.  Or,  us,  Ss,  ies,  and  ium  generally  designate  the  ACTION  or  STATE 
denoted  by  the  verb,  but  es,  ies,  and  ium  sometimes  designate  the  RESULT 
of  the  action :  aedificium,  '  edifice,'  from  aedific-are,  '  to  build.' 

2.  Men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  and  num  generally  designate  the 
MEANS  of  the  action,  or  its  involuntary  SUBJECT,  sometimes  the  ACT  itself, 
or  its  RESULT  :  flu-men,  '  a  stream,'  '  something  which  flows,'  from  flu-ere  ; 
aa-men,  '  an  army  in  motion,'  from  ag-ere. 

NOTE.— The  stem  or  root  Is  sometimes  shortened  or  changed  :  mo-mentum, '  moving 
force,1  from  mov-ere. 

3.  Bulum,  culum,  brum,  and  crum  designate  the  INSTRUMENT  or  the 
PLACE  of  the  action :   vehi-culum,  '  vehicle '  (instrument  of  the  action), 
from  vehe-re  ;  tta-bulum, '  stall '  (place  of  the  action),  from  sta-re. 

NOTE. — The  vowel  of  the  stem  is  sometimes  changed  :  »epul-crum, '  sepulchre,'  from 
itpel-lre,  'to  bury';  see  /J4,  8. 

4.  In  culum,  c  is  dropped  after  c  and  g :  vinc-ulum,  '  a  bond,'  from 
vine-Ire  :  rea-ula,  '  rule,'  from  reg-ere. 

NOTE.— Do,  /a,  agi,  Ig6,*  and  a  few  other  endings  also  occur :  torpe-d6,  'numbness,' 
from  torpe-re.  'to  be  numb';  cupl-dd,  'desire,'  from  cupe-re,  'to  desire  ;  cande-la, 
'candle,'  front  eande-re,  'to  shine';  vor-ago,  'whirlpool,'  from  vor-rire,  'to  swallow  up? 
vtrt-ig?>,  'a  turn,'  from  vert-ere,  'to  turn.' 

5.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Splend-or,  origbtness,'  from  splend-2r«,  'to  be  bright';  op-us,  'work,' 
ttom  the  root  op  for  ap,  '  work  ' ;  dec-us, '  ornament,'  from  root  dec,  in  dec-et, 

1  In  several  01  these  examples  the  noun  is  not  strictly  derived  from  the  verb,  but 
both  nonn  and  verb  are  formed  from  one  common  root,  as  frlg-us  and  frlg-ere  from  the 
root  friij. 

9  Sed-ere  and  sed-et  show  a  variable  root-vowel— e,  e  ;  see  2O,  note  2. 

»  8«e  Oorssen,  I.,  p.  577;  II.,  pp.  802,  308. 


ADJECTIVES.  165 

it  Is  becoming ' ;  nub-is,  '  cloud,'  from  the  root  nab  in  nub-ere,  '  to  veil ' ; 
upec-iea, '  look,'  from  speoere,  '  to  look ' ;  effug-i-um, '  escape,'  from  effug-ere, 
'  to  escape' ;  imper-ium, '  command,'  from  imper-dre,  'to  command' ;  certd- 
men, '  contort,'  from  certo-re,  '  to  contend ' ;  docu~mentum^  '  lesson,'  '  docu- 
ment,' from  doce-re,  '  to  teach ' ;  nutrl-mentum^ '  nourishment,'  from  nutri-re^ 
'  to  nourish  ;  pd-bulum,  '  fodder,'  from  the  root  />«  in  pd-scere,  '  to  feed ' . 
spectd-culum,  '  sight,'  from  spectd-re,  '  to  behold ' ;  to-mm,  '  gain,'  from 
lu-ere, '  to  pay ' ;  do-num,1  '  gift,'  from  the  root  da  in  do-r<?,  '  to  give.' 

FOKMATION    OF    ADJECTIVES    BY    SUFFIXES. 
I.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  NOUNS. 

328.  FULLNESS. — Adjectives  denoting  fullness,  abundance,  sup- 
ply, generally  end  in — 

OHMS,     cosus,     lens,     lentus,    tns.* 

anim-Osus,  full  of  courage,        from        animus,  spirit,  courmy' 

fructu-Osus,  fruitful,  fructus,  fruit. 

belli-cosus,  warlike,  "           bellum,  war. 

pesti-lgns,  pestilential,  "           peatis,  pest. 

pesti-lentus,  " 

vlno-lentus,  full  of  wine,  vlnum,  'urine. 

fraudu-lentus,  fraudulent,  "           fraus,  fraud. 

§la-tus,  winged,  aid,  wing. 

turrl-tus,  turreted,  "           turris,  turret. 

cornQ-tus,  horned,  "           cornti,  horn. 

jus-tus,  just,  "           jils,  right. 

NOTB.— Before  osus  the  stem-vowel  is  generally  dropped,  but**  la  retained:  aninu 
t>sut,  anim-osiM,  but  fructu-osut. 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Ann-dms,  *  full  of  years,'  from  annus,  '  year ' ;  luxuri-Ssus,  '  luxurious,' 
from  luxuria, '  luxury ' ;  pericul-osus, '  dangerous,*  from  periculum,  *  danger ' ; 
tenebr-8#u8  and  tenebri-cosus,  'gloomy,'  from  tenebrae,  'gloom';  turbus-lentut^ 
'  riotous,'  from  £wr5a,  '  riot ' ;  bat  bd-tus,  '  bearded,'  from  barba,  '  beard ' ; 
auri-tug,  'long  eared,'  I'roui  auris,  'ear';  onus-tust  'burdened,'  from  onus, 
'  burden.' 

329.  MATERIAL. — Adjectives  designating  the  material  of  whicb 
anything  is  made  generally  end  in — 

1  With  modified  stem  or  root:  doc&,  docu;  da,  df>. 

*  On  onus,  see  Schleicher,  p.  408;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  62;  II.,  p.  688.  Cfau*  Is  from  co 
and  5*?«,g  thus  from  beUum,  'war,'  is  formed  belli-cut,  'belonging  to  war';  and  from 
belli-cus  is  formed  bellico-'~*wt,  belli-eosus,  '  warlike.'  On  lens,  lentus,  see  ra ,  la,  3iJO. 
The  vowel  before  lent,  lentnt — generally  «,  sometimes  o  or  i — was  originally  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  primitive,  as  in  v'ino-ltntut,  petti-lens,  ]>e»ti-lentvs,  but  it  was  sometimes 
treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix:  ri-olentu»,  'violent,'  from  vis,  'force.'  Tus  is  identical 
with  tus  in  the  passive  participle,  and  tt'Jien  added  to  vowel-stems  is  preceded  by  <7,  5, 
or  u:  (lid-tux,  turrl-tus.  cornfi-lut,  like  amt'i-tus,  audl-tut,  acft-tus  ('sharpened,'  from 
acu-o,  'to  sharpen').  It  may.  however,  be  added  to  consunant-sterns  •  j'ntit*. 


166 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


eus,  mis,  neus,  aceus,  icius.1 


aur-eus, 

argent-eus, 

fag-eus, 

fagi-nus,* 

fagi-neus,* 

popul-nus,3 

p6pul-neus,3 

papyr-aceus, 

later-icius, 


golden, 
of  silver, 
of  beech, 


of  poplar, 

of  papyrus, 
of  brick, 


from 


aurum, 

argentum, 

fagus, 


pflpulus, 
it 

papyrus, 
later, 


gold, 
silver, 
a  beech. 


a  poplar 


papyt'us. 
brick. 


NOTK. — These  endings  sometimes  denote  characteristic  or  possession 
'  belonging  to  a  maiden.' 


330.  CHARACTERISTIC. — Adjectives  signifying  belonging  to,  de- 
rived from,  generally  end  in — 

cus,  icus,  alia,  Ills,  anus,  mus,  aria,  arius,  iua,  enaia.4 


dvi-cus, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

from 

civis, 

citizen. 

patr-icus, 

paternal, 

(i 

pater, 

father. 

natur-alis, 

natural, 

u 

natura, 

nature. 

mort-alia, 

mortal, 

M 

mors, 

death. 

host-Ilis, 

hostile, 

H 

hostis, 

enemy. 

clv-ilis, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

M 

civis, 

citizen. 

oppid-anus, 

of  the  town, 

M 

oppidum, 

tovm. 

urb-anus, 

of  the  city, 

M 

urbs, 

city. 

mar-lnus, 

marine, 

u 

mare, 

sea. 

equ-Inus, 

of,  pertaining  to  a  horse, 

" 

equus, 

horse. 

lun-firis, 

lunar, 

(i 

lima, 

moon. 

salut-aris, 

salutary, 

U 

salus, 

safety. 

auxili-arius, 

auxiliary, 

M 

auxilium, 

aid. 

r6g-ius, 

royal, 

(( 

r6x, 

king. 

6rat6r-ius, 

of  an  orator, 

U 

6rator,s 

orator. 

fur-ensis, 

forensic, 

« 

forum, 

forum. 

1  On  eus,  stem  eo,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  842-846;  Bopp,  III.,  p.  429;  on  nus,  see 
na,  32O.  Neus  adds  eus  to  no,  seen  in  nus;  aceus  adds  eus  to  uc,  seen  in  tite  (333, 
foot-note  2);  and  ic-ius  adds  ius  to  ic  orico;  see^a,  32O,  and  icu#,  33O. 

3  Stem-vowel  changed  to  i  before  nus  and  neus. 

*  Stem-vowel  dropped  before  nus  and  neus. 

*  On  cus,  see  ka,  320.    In  i-cus,  i  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive,  but 
was  finally  treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix,  as  in  patr-icus.    In  the  same  way  the  vowels 
&  and  i  In  alia,  His,  arts,  drius,  anus,  and  Inus  were  developed  from  the  stem-vowels 
of  the  primitives;  thus  in  such  words  as  doc-i-lis,  'docile,1  from  doc-e-re,  the  suffix 
seems  to  have  been  originally  lis,  but  at  length  the  preceding  i  was  treated  as  a  part  of 
the  suffix,  making  iUs.    If  now  His  be  added  to  ?iosti,  the  stem  of  hostis,  we  shall  have 
hosti-iUs  =  host-Uis ;  or,  with  Corssen,  we  may  suppose  that  from  hostis  was  formed 
the  verb  hoxtl-re,  and  that  the  ending  lis  was  added  directly  to  host!,  making  host'i-li*. 
The  long  initial  vowel  in  other  endings  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  similar  origin.     Mis, 
llis,  and  arie  are  virtually  the  same  suffix,  as  I  and  r  are  interchangeable ;  see  ra,  ?a. 
foot-note,  320.    Arius  —  i'tri-ius.    On  anus,  Inus,  and  ius,  see  ja  and  na,  33O;  on 
fnsit,  see  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  62,  254;  II,  pp.  6S8,  719. 

6  Bat  irra-tor  is  formed  from  ord-re  by  adding  tor  to  the  stem ;  tee  326. 


ADJECTIVES.  16? 

1.  Ester  or  estris,1  timus,  itimus,  ticus,2  cinus,  and  a  few  other  end 
fags  occur :  terr-ester  or  terr-estris,  '  terrestrial,'  from  terra,  '  earth ' ;  mari- 
limus,  '  maritime,'  from  mare,  '  sea ' ;  leg-itimus,  '  lawful,'  from  lex,  leais, 
1  law ' ;   rus-ticus,  '  rustic,'   from  rOs,  '  country ' ;   vati-cinus,   '  prophetic,' 
from  rates,  '  prophet.' 

2.  OTHKB  EXAMPLES  are — 

Domini-cus,  'of  a  master,'  from  deminus,  'master';  serc-lUs,  'slavish,' 
from  servus,  '  slave ' ;  vir-ilis, '  manly,'  from  vir,  '  man ' ;  capit-dlis,  '  of  the 
head,'  'capital,'  from  caput,  'head';  reg-alis,  'kingly,'  from  rex,  'king'; 
cdnsul-dris,  'consular,'  from  consul,  'consul';  milti-dris,  'military,'  from 
miles,  'soldier';  ayr-drius^  'of  or  relating  to  land,'  from  ager,  'field';  ar- 
gent-drius,  '  of  silver,'  from  argentum,  '  silver ' ;  can-inus,  '  of  a  dog,'  from 
canis,  'dog';  lup-inus,  'of  a  wolf,'  from  lupus,  'wolf';  mont-dnus,  'of  a 
mountain,'  from  mdns,  '  mountain ' ;  nox-ius,  '  injurious,'  from  noxa,  '  in- 
jury ' ;  patr-ius,  '  of  a  father,'  from  pater,  '  father ' ;  imperdtor-ius,  '  of  a  com- 
mander,' from  i/inperdtor,  '  commander.' 

331.  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in — • 
anus,  ianus,  Inus ;  ius,  iacus,  icus  ;  ensis,  iensis  ;  as,  aeus,  eus. J 

Sull-anus,  of  Sulla,  from        Sulla,  Sulla. 

Rom-anus,  JRoman,  Roma,  Home. 

Mari-anus,  of  Marius,  Marius,  Marius. 

Ciceron-ianus,  Ciceronian,  Cicero,  Cicero. 

Lat-Inus,9  Latin,  Latium,  Latium. 

?laut-Inus,  of  Plautus,  Plautus,  Plautus. 

Corinth-ius,  Corinthian,  Corinthus,  Corinth. 
Corinth-iacus,                     " 

Britann-icus,  British,  Britannus,  a  Briton. 

Cann-8nsis,  of  Cannae,  Cannae,  Cannae. 

AthSn-iSnsis,  Athenian,  Ath6nae,  Athens. 

fldSn-fts,  of  Fidenae,  FldSnae,  Fidenae. 

Smyrn-aeus,  Smymean,  Smyrna,  Smyrna. 

Pythagor-Sus,  Pythagorean,         "  Pythagoras,  Pythagoras. 

1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  from 
Names  of  Persons  ;  but  others  also  occur. 

NOTE  ].— Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also  used  substantive)? 
M  Patrial  or  Gentile  Noun*  to  designate  the  citizens  of  the  place  :  Corinthil,  the  Co- 
rinthians; Athfniermen,  the  Athenians. 

NOTK  2. — The  Roman  Oentls  or  c/ant  were  all  designated  by  adjectives  in  ius,  ae 
gins  Corntlia,  gint  Jftlia. 

1  The  ending  ester  or  estris  may  be  formed  by  adding  ter  or  Ms  to  ««  from  the  suffix 
a»  (32O);  but  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  649. 

8  On  ti-mus,  i-ti-mus,  and  ti-cii«,  see  fa,  ma,  ca,  32O. 

*  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel: 
Stdl-iinus.  In  fact,  anus  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  stem-vowel  with  the  suffix.  80 
in  Mari-ilnus,  but  in  examples  like  this  the  i  before  finuH  was  finally  treated  as  a  part 
of  the  suffix,  making  &?nu«,  as  seen  in  Oicerdn-i<~inu«.  Inus  in  Lat-'mus  contains  to, 
from  Lat-io,  the  stem  of  Latium. 


168  DERIVATION  OF   WORDS. 

NOTE  8.— An  adjective  In  iws,  used  substantively,  formed  a  part  of  the  name  of  everj 
distinguished  Roman,  and  designated  the  gens  to  which  he  belonged ;  see  Roman  Names, 
649. 

II.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  ADJECTIVES. 

332.  DIMINUTIVES  from  other  adjectives  generally  end  like 
diminutive  nouns  (321)  in — 

lus,  ulus,  culus.1 

gbrio-lus,  tomcwhal  drunken,  from  Sbrius,  drunken 

aureo-lus,  golden,  aureus,  golden. 

long-ulus,  rather  long,  "  longus,  long. 

pauper-culus,  rather  poor,  "  pauper,  poor. 

NOTE  1.— The  endings  ellus  and  illus  also  occur  as  In  nouns  (331,4):  nov-ellus, 
new,'  from  novus,  '  new.1 

NOTE  2.— Culu*  Is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:  durius-culut,  'somewhat 
hard,'  from  durior,  durius,  'harder.' 

m.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  VERBS  AND  FROM  ROOTS. 

333.  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in — 

bundus,  cundus,  dus;  bills,  tills,  sills,  lls;  ax.* 
mlra-bundus,  wondering,  from         mira-ri,  to  wonder. 


mori-bundus, 

vere-cundus,  diffident, 

cali-dus,  warm, 

pavi-dus,  fearful, 

ama-bilis,  worthy  of  love, 


mori,  to  die. 

vere-rf,  to  fear. 

cale-re,  to  be  warm, 

pave-re,  to  fear. 

ama-re,  to  love. 


— &  -^ 
duc-tilis,  ductile,  duc-ere,  to  lead. 

fleSSsf^  fi^^  "  flect'ere'  to/Mm- 

doci-lis,  docile,  "  doc6-re,  to  teach. 

pugn-ax,  pugnacious,  pugna-re,  to  fight. 

aud-ax,  daring,  "  aud6-re,  to  dare. 

1.  Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  participle ; 
but  bundus  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  participle :  laetH-bundus, 
rejoicing  greatly ;  and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  characteristic  rather 
than  a  single  act  or  feeling :  vere-cundus,  diffident. 

2.  Dus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  Bills,  tills,  silis,  and  lis  denote  CAPABILITY,  generally  in  a  passive 
sense :  amdbilis,  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ;  sometimes  in  an  active 
sense :  terribilis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror. 

1  See  p.  168.  foot-note  6. 

4  Bundus  is  explained  by  Corssen  and  others  as  formed  by  appending  undus,  endus, 
the  Gerundive  suffix,  to  bu=fu,  as  seen  \aful;  cundut,  by  adding  the  same  suffix  to 
no  (ka,  32O);  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  810-312.  On  dus,  see  Corssen.  II.,  pp.  302,  303;  on 
!»'«,  see  ra,  la,  320;  and  on  bilix,  32O,  foot-note  1 ;  also  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  166-1G9;  on  tilit 
and  «i/w,  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  41,  826.  The  ending  dx  =  d-c-s  Is  for  a-co-s,  in  which  d  wa« 
originally  the  stem-vowel  of  an  a-verb  ••  thus  pftgn-d-oo-s  becomes  piiynd-ct,  pugndte. 

*  Flec-tili*  =flect-tilis :  »e«  35.  3.  21 


VERBS.  169 

4.  Ax  denotes  INCLINATION,  generally  a  faulty  one :  loquax,  loquacious. 

6.  Cus,  Icus,  nous,  vus,  uus,  Ivus,  tivus,  ticius,  ius,  and  ulus l  also 
occur: 

Medi-cut, '  healing,'  '  medical,'  from  mede-ri,  '  to  heal ' ;  am-teus, '  friend- 
ly,' from  am-are, '  to  love ' ;  cad-uous,  '  falling,'  '  inclined  to  fall,'  from  cad- 
tre,  'to  fall';  xat-vus,  'safe,'  from  root  *a£,  'whole,'  'sound';  noc-uus  and 
noc-ivus, '  hurtful,'  from  noc-ere,  '  to  hurt ' ;  cap-tivus,  '  captive,'  from  cap-ere, 
to  take ' ;  ficticius,  for  fig-ticius,  '  feigned,'  from,  fig,  the  root  offing-ere,  '  to 
form,'  '  fashion,'  '  feign ' ;  exim-ius,  '  select,'  '  choice,'  from  exim-ere,  '  to 
select  out ' ;  cred-ulus,  '  credulous,'  from  cred-ere,  '  to  believe.' 

6.  OTHEB  EXAMPLES  are — 

Ludi-bundus,  'sportive,'  'playful,'  from  lude-re,  'to  play';  rldi-bundut, 
1  laughing,'  from  ride-re,  '  to  laugh ' ;  fa-cundus,  '  eloquent,'  from  fd-ri, '  to 
speak ' ;  ju-cundus,  for  juv-cundus,  '  pleasant,'  from  juv-dre,  l  to  aid,'  '  de- 
light ' ;  avi-dus,  '  greedy,'  from  ave-re, '  to  long  for ' ;  eupi-dus^  '  desirous,' 
from  cupe-re,  '  to  desire ' ;  timi-dut,  '  timid,'  from  time-re,  '  to  fear' ;  fad-Us, 
1  easy,'  '  capable  of  being  done,'  from  face-re,  'to  do ' ;  nubi-lis,  '  marriage- 
able,' from  7iube-re,  '  to  marry ' ;  uti-lis,  '  useful,'  from  uti,  '  to  use  * ;  credi- 
biUs,  '  credible,'  from  crede-re, '  to  believe ' ;  terri-bilis,  '  terrible,'  from  terre- 
re,  'to  terrify';  lauda-biUs,  'praiseworthy,'  from  lauda-re,  'to  praise ';/er- 
tilis,  '  fertile,'  from  fer-re,  '  to  bear ' ;  cap-dx,  '  capacious,'  from  cap-ere,  '  to 
take ' ;  ten-dx,  '  tenacious,'  from  ten-ire,  '  to  bold.' 

IV.  ADJECTIVES  FKOM  ADVEKBS  AND  PREPOSITIONS. 

334.  A  few  adjectives  are  formed  from  adverbs  and  preposi- 
tions :  * 

cras-tinus,  of  to-morrow,  from          eras,  to-morrow. 

contra-rius,  contrary,  contra,  affainst. 

inter-nus,  internal,  inter,  among,  within. 

super-bus,  haughty,  super,  above. 

super-nus,  upper,  «*                u                     a 

FORMATION    OF    VERBS    BY    SUFFIXES. 
I.  VERBS  FROM  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES. 

335.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  called  DE- 
voMtNATivES.     They  end  in — 

OONJ.  I.  Cox*.  II.  COJM.  III.  Coirj.  IV. 

0,  5-re,  eo,  e-re,  uo,  ue-re,3  io,  I-re.4 


1  fit*.  M««,  and  l-vua  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix;  uus  was  formed  by 
vocalizing  v  In  vu*;  l-vu«,  by  adding-  vus  to  the  stem-vowel  I ;  noc-i-v>is,  as  if  from  a 
'"xb,  noc-ira  =  noc-ere.  The  other  endings  are  composed  of  elements  Already  explained. 

3  But  adverbs  and  prepositions  are  In  origin  case-fbrms;  see  3O4;  307,  note  1. 

3  Conjugation  III.  contains  primitive  verbs  with  a  few  derivatives. 

*  According  to  Curtius  and  others,  the  suffix  which  was  added  to  the  stems  of  noun« 
nd  adlectives  to  form  verh-s  wa*  nriifiiiaUy^'a.  pronouncec1  'i/a.  probably  identical  with  > 


170 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


cfir-6, 

ft-re, 

to  care  for,               fr< 

>m        cur-a, 

care. 

fug-6, 

a-re, 

to  put  to  flight, 

fug-a, 

flight. 

pugn-6, 

fi-re, 

to  fight, 

pugn-a, 

battle. 

bell-6, 

a-re, 

to  carry  on  war, 

bell-um, 

•war. 

don-6, 

a-re, 

to  give, 

don-um, 

gift. 

firm-6, 

a-re, 

to  make  firm, 

firm-us, 

firm. 

labor  -6, 

a-re, 

to  labor, 

labor, 

labor. 

liber-6, 

a-re, 

to  liberate, 

Uber, 

free. 

nomin-6, 

a-re, 

to  name, 

nomen, 

name. 

a,lb-e6, 

e-re, 

to  be  white, 

alb-us, 

white. 

clar-6, 

a-re, 

to  make  bright, 

clar-us, 

bright. 

clar-eo, 

§-re, 

to  be  bright, 

H 

" 

flor-eo, 

e-re, 

to  bloom, 

flOs, 

flower. 

luc-eo, 

6-re, 

to  shine, 

lux—  luc-s, 

light. 

met-uo, 

ue-re, 

to  fear, 

met-us, 

fear. 

stat-uo, 

ue-re, 

to  place, 

stat-us, 

position. 

fin-io, 

I-re, 

to  finish, 

fin-is, 

end. 

moll-Id, 

I-re, 

to  soften, 

moll-is, 

soft. 

vest-io, 

I-re, 

to  clothe^                      ' 

yest-is, 

garment. 

serv-io, 

I-re, 

to  serve,                       ' 

serv-us, 

servant. 

custod-io, 

I-re, 

to  guard,                     ' 

custos, 

guardian 

NOTE  1.— Denominatives  of  the  second  conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most  of  the 
others  are  transitive. 

NOTB  2. — Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  be  deponent:  dominor,  dri,  '  to 
domineer,'  from  dominus,  'master';  miror,  ari,  'to  wonder  at,'  from  mlrus,  'wonder- 
ful ' ;  partior,  Irl, '  to  part,' '  divide,'  from  pars,  partis, '  part.1 

1.  OTHEB  EXAMPLES  are — 

Gulp-are,  '  to  find  fault,'  from  culp-a,  '  fault' ;  gtiri-dri,  '  to  boast,' '  glory,' 
from  glori-a, '  glory ' ;  nov-are,  '  to  make  new,'  from  novus,  '  new ' ;  regn-dre, 
'to  reign,'  from  regnum,  'royal  power';  lev-are,  'to  lighten,'  from  lenis, 
*  light ' ;  honor-are,  '  to  honor,'  from  honor,  '  honor ' ;  laud-are,  '  to  praise,' 
from  laus  =  laud-s,  '  praise  ' ;  saev-ire,  '  to  be  fierce,'  from  saevus,  '  fierce.' 

the  root  of  ?-r«,  'to  go.'  This  suffix  added  to  a,  the  original  stem- vowel  of  most  nouns 
and  adjectives,  formed  a-ja,  still  preserved  in  the  ending  ajd-mi  in  a  large  class  of  San- 
skrit verbs.  From  this  compound  suffix  aja  are  derived  in  Latin,  in  the  first  conjuga 
tion,  (1;  ac,  contracted  to  o:  cur-0  =  cur-ajo  for  cftr-aG  for  cfir-aja;  (2)  a:  cur-a-s. 
shortened  to  a  in  our-a-t  for  cur-ii-t; — in  the  second  conjugation,  (1)  eo:  Ific-eO  for  ific 
ejo  for  luc-aja;  (2)  e:  lue-e-s,  shortened  to  e  in  luc-e-t  for  liic-e-t;  and  iu  the  fourth 
conjugation,  (1)  io  and  iu:  serv-io  for  strv-ijo  for  serv-aja,  serc-iu-nt  for  serv-iju-nt 
for  serv-aju-nt;  and  (2)  I:  serv-'i-s,  shortened  to  i  in  nerv-i-t  for  serv-l-t;  see  Bopp,  I, 
pp.  207-229;  Curtius,  Verbum,  1^  pp.  292,  826-848;  Schleicher,  pp.  358-861.  For  an  ob- 
jection  to  this  explanation  of  the  a-verbs,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  788-786.— On  final  0  of  the 
first  person,  see  247,  1,  foot-note  5.— The  suflix^a,  added  to  original  i-stemg,  formed  ija 
and  gave  rise  to  i-verbs :  fmio  =fln-i-jO  —fln-ija;  and  added  to  u-ntems,  it  formed 
u-ja  and  gave  rise  to  u-verbs :  met-uo  =  met-u-jo  =  met-uja. — In  general,  a-stems  give 
rise  to  a-verbs :  cur-a,  cur-a-re  ;  o-stemtt,  sometimes  to  a-verb»,  sometimes  to  e-verl/s, 
and  sometimes  to  i-rerb*  :  firmus,  stem  Jirmo,  flrm-ii-re;  albus,  stem  alb-o,  alb-f-re; 
tercug,  stem  serv-o,  serv-t-re, ;  consonant  stems,  to  a-terbs,  e-verbs,  or  i-verbs,  after  th« 
analogy  of  vowel  stems :  hibor  for  labor,  labfrr-d-re  ;  flt>»,  Jlor-e-re  for  _fl<~>t-e-re  (31,  1 ): 
custos,  stem  crustod,  custod-i-re. 


VERBS.  171 

II.  VERBS  PROM  VERBS.' 

336.  FREQUENTATIVES    or    INTENSIVES  denote   repeated,   con- 
tinued, or  intense  action.     They  are  generally  of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, and  are  formed — 

I.  From  the  stem  of  the  participle 2  in  tus  or  SUB  : 

cant-6,  are,  to  sing,  from  cantus  from  cano,  to  sing? 

capt-6,  are,  to  snatch,  "  captus         '  capio,  to  take. 

dat-6,  are,  to  give  often,  "  datus            '  dS,  to  give. 

habit-6,  are,  to  inhabit,  "  habitus        '  habeo,  to  have. 

quass-6,  are,  to  shake  violently,  "  quassus        '  quatio,  to  shake. 

territ-5,  are,  to  frighten  often,  "  territus        '  terreo,  to  frighten. 

II.  From  the  present  stem,  by  adding  to  and  changing  the  preceding 
vowel  to  i,  if  not  already  in  that  form  :  * 

agi-tS,  are,  to  shake,  from           ago,  to  move,  lead. 

clSmi-to,  are,  to  shout  often,  clamo,  to  shout. 

rogi-to,  are,  to  ask  eagerly,  rogo,  to  ask. 

voci-to,  are,  to  call  often,  "              voco,  to  call. 

voli-to,  are,  to  flit  about,  "              volo,  to  fly. 

NOT«  1. — Frequentatives  are  sometimes  formed  from  other  frequentatives:  6  cantito, 
'to  sing  often,'  from  canto  from  cano;  dictito, '  to  say  often,'  from  dicto  from  d'icO. 

NOTE  2. — A  few  derivatives  in  esso  and  ins!)  also  occur.  They  are  intensive  in  force, 
denoting  earnest  rather  than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  the  third  conjugation  :  faciG, 
facesfiO, '  to  do  earnestly ' ;  incipit),  incipisso, '  to  begin  eagerly.' 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Dicto,  '  to  say  often,'  from  died,  '  to  say ' ;  spectd,  '  to  behold,'  from  specio, 
'to  look  at' ;  factito,  'to  do  often,'  from  f acid,  'to  do,'  'make';  ianperit6, 
'  to  command  often,'  from  impero,  '  to  command ' ;  rapid,  '  to  snatch,'  from 
ropid,  '  to  seize.' 

337.  INCEPTIVES  or  INCHOATIVES  denote  the  beginning  of  the 
action.     They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in  sco  : 

>  Either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  participles. 

a  They  are  thus  strictly  denominatives  (335).  Intransitive  verb's,. though  without 
the  participle  in  tu»  or  »u»,  may  form  frequentative*  after  the  analogy  of  transitive 
verbs:  curso,  are,  'to  run  about,'  formed  as  if  from  cursut  from  currfi,  'to  run';  ven- 
tit/i,  ure, '  to  come  often,'  formed  as  if  from  ventus,  from  renio,  '  to  come.' 

*  Remember  that  the  stem  of  the  participle  ends  in  o ;  thus  cantim  =  canto-s.  Ob 
(serve,  therefore,  that  the  verb  canto,  *  I  sing,'  is  in  form  like  the  stem  of  the  participle. 
Cantf)  was.  however,,  originally  produced  by  adding  ja  to  canta,  the  original  stem  of 
cantus.  making  canta-ja,  cantajt).  cantao,  canto;  see  also  335,  foot-note. 

4  The  formation  from  the  participle  was  doubtless  the  original  method,  but  at  length 
tfi  was  regarded  as  the  suffix,  and  was  accordingly  added  to  present  stems,  and  as  in  many 
cases  /  preceded,  the  stem-vowel  finally  took  this  form  before  the  suffix  to ;  see  Corssen, 
II.,  p.  297. 

6  Sometimes  from  frequentatives  no  longer  in  use :  fictito, '  to  act  often,'  as  If  from 
dcto,  not  in  use,  from  ago ;  scrlptito,  'to  write  often,'  as  if  from  scrlpto,  not  in  use, 
from  tcrlbfi. 


172  COMPOSITION  OF   WORDS. 


gel-fi-sco, 

to  begin  to  freeze,      from     gel  -6, 

a-re, 

to  freezt. 

cal-6-sc6, 

to  become  warm, 

cal-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  warm. 

rub-S-sco, 

to  grow  red, 

rub-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  red. 

vir-g-sco, 

to  grow  green, 

vir-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  green. 

trem-1-sco, 

to  begin  to  tremble, 

trem-o, 

e-re, 

to  tremble. 

obdorm-I-sco, 

to  fall  asleep, 

obdorm-io, 

i-re, 

to  sleep. 

338.  DESIDEBATIVES  denote  a  desire  to  perform  the  action. 
They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  end  in  turio  or  surio  : 

par-turio,     Ire,      to  strive  to  bring  forth,      from      pario,      to  bring  forth. 
e-surio,        Ire,      to  desire  to  eat,  "         edo,         to  eat.1 

339.  DIMINUTIVES  denote  &  feeble  action.2    They  are  of  the  first 
conjugation,  and  end  in  illo : 

cant-illo,  to  sing  feebly,       from       canto,  to  sina. 

conscrib-illo,      to  scribble,  "          consertbo,      to  wnte. 

Nor*.— For  the  DERIVATION  OF  ADVERBS,  see  304. 

SECTION    III. 

COMPOSITION    OF    WORDS. 

340.  New  words  may  be  formed — 

I.  By  the  union  of  two  or  more  words  under  one  principal  accent, 
without  change  of  meaning : 

Res  puolica,  respubUca,  republic ;  agn  cultura,  agrlcultura,  agriculture ; 
juris  consuttus,  jurisconsultus,  lawyer,  one  skilled  in  the  law  ;  quern  ad  m-o- 
dum,  quemadmodum,  in  what  way — lit.,  to  what  measure. 

NOTE.— These  are  compounds  only  In  form.  The  separate  words  retain  In  a  great 
measure  their  identity  both  in  form  and  in  meaning,  and  may  in  fact  be  written  separately. 
Res  pfiblica  is  the  approved  form.  Other  examples  of  this  class  are  :  Itgis-lator,  law- 
giver; pater-familias,  father  of  a  family;  senatus-cfrnsultum,  decree  of  the  senate;  hi'ic- 
tenus,  thus  far;  saepe-numero,  often  in  number;  bene-fado,  to  do  well,  benefit;  ma/e- 
dico,  to  revile;  saUft-faciO,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for;  animum-ad-verto,  anim-ad-verto, 
to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

n.  By  prefixing  an  indeclinable  particle  to  an  inflected  word, 
generally  with  some  change  of  meaning : 

Ad-sum,  to  be  present ;  de-pond,  to  lay  down  ;  re-pond,  to  replace  ;  ~e-di*<$, 
to  learn  by  heart ;  im-memor,  unmindful ;  per-facilis,  very  easy  ;  pro-consul, 

1  These  are  the  only  desideratlves  in  common  use,  but  a  few  others  occur :  cena-turio. 
Ho  desire  to  dine,'  from  ceno, '  to  dine ' ;  emp-turio, '  to  desire  to  purchase,'  from  em<'>. 
'to  purchase ' ;  nup-turif), '  to  desire  to  marry,'  from  nftbo, '  to  marry.'  They  were  prob- 
ably formed  originally  through  the  medium  of  a  verbal  noun  in  tor  or  sor  (336,  foot-note 
2) :  thus,  cf no.  cend-tor,  '  one  who  dines ' ;  cend-tor-i-re  =  cend-tur-l-re  (o  changed  to 
«),  'to  desire  to  dine1;  emO,  emp-tor,  'a  purchaser';  emp-tor-ire  =  emp-tur-J-re,  'to 
desire  to  purchase.' 

a  Probably  denominative*  formed  from  verb-sterns  through  diminutive  verbal  nouns. 


NOUNS.  173 

proconsul,  one  acting  for  a  consul ;  inter-riff num,  interregnum,  an  interval 
between  two  reigns. 

III.  By  uniting  two  or  more  simple  stems  or  roots,  and  adding 
appropriate  inflectional  suffixes  when  needed :  * 

Igni-color,1  fire-colored ;  grandi-aevo-s,1  grand-aevus,  a,  um,  of  great  age  ; 
omni-potent-s,  om/nipotens,  omnipotent ;  mdgno-animo-s,  rndgnanimus,  a,  vm, 
great-souled ;  tubi-cen^  trumpeter ;  arti-fec-s,  artifex,  artificer ;  alio-qvi,  ali- 
quit*  any  one. 

1.  In  the  first  element  of  the  compound  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-vowel  generally  takes  the  *br_.  of  i :   capro-corno-s, 
capri-cornus  ;  tvba-cen,  tubi-cen. 

2)  That  consonant  stems  sometimes  assume  *  .•  hon&r-i-fico-s, 
a,  um,  honorable. 

3;  That  the  stem-vowel  disappears  before  another  vowel : 
mdgnanimus. 

2.  The  stem-ending  and  the  inflectional  ending  of  the  second  element 
generally  remain  unchanged  in  the  compound  ;  see  examples  above.     But 
observe — 

1)  That  they  are  sometimes  slightly  changed :  aequo-nocti,  aequi-noctio-m,3 
aequinoctium,  equinox ;  multa-forma,  multi-formi*,  with  many  forms. 

2)  That  a  verbal  root  or  stem  may  be  the  second  element  in  a  compound 
noun  or  adjective  :  tubi-cen  (cen  =  can,  the  root  of  can/),  to  sing),  trumpeter ; 
U>ti-fer  (fer,  root  of  f era,  to  bear),  death-bearing. 

NOTE.— The  words  classed  under  II.  and  III.  are  regarded  as  real  compounds,  but 
those  under  III.  best  illustrate  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  genuine  compounds,  as 
they  are  formed  from  compound  stems  and  have  a  meaning  which  could  not  be  expressed 
by  the  separate  words.  Thus,  rruignus  animus  means  a  great  soul,  but  magna-nirMis 
means  having  a  great  soul.* 

341.  In  COMPOUND  NOUNS,  the  first  part  is  generally  the  stem 
of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition;  and 
the  second  part  is  the  stem  of  a  noun,  or  a  stem  from  a  verbal  root : 

arti-fex,  artist,  from  arti-fac  in  ars         and  facio. 

capri-cornus,  Capricorn,        "  capro-cornu  "  caper      "    cornu. 

aequi-noctium,  equinox,  "  aequo-nocti  "  p.equus    "    nox. 

ng-mo,  nobody,  "  ne-homon  "  nS  "    homo. 

prQ-nomen,  pronoun,          "  pr6-n6men  "  pr6          "    nomen. 

1  Thus  Igni-color  Is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  stems  without  Inflectional  suffix; 
but  in  grand-a«vu-8,  the  suffix  « is  added  to  the  stem  grandaerfi,  compounded  of  grandi 
and  afrfi. 

s  Literally,  any  other  one. 

»  Tl,  the  stem-ending  of  nw,  becomes  tit,  to  which  Is  added  the  nominative-ending  TO. 

4  Class  II.  occupies  a  position  intermediate  between  I.  and  III.  Some  compounds 
of  particles  with  verbs,  for  example,  have  developed  a  meaning  quite  distinct  from  that 
denoted  by  the  separate  parts,  while  others  have  simply  retained  the  ordinary  meaning 
of  those  parts. 


174  COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

1.  COMPOUNDS  in  ex,  dex,  fex,  cen,  clda,  and  cola  deserve  special 
notice : 

Remo-ex,  remex,1  oarsman ;  jtig-dex,  jtidex,1  judge ;  arti-fex,  artist ;  tlbia- 
cen,  tibi-cenf  flute-player;  homon-cida,  homi-dda,3  manslayer;  agri^cola,* 
husbandman,  one  who  tills  the  soil. 

NOTE. — Ex  (for  ag-s)  i»  from  the  root  ag  in  ago,  to  drive,  impel;  d«e  (for  dic-s\ 
from  die  in  dico,  to  make  known ;  feas  (for  foc-s),  from  foe  in  facift,  to  make ;  cen,  from 
sow  in  canO,  to  sing;  clda  (for  caed-a),  from  caed  in  caedo,  to  cut,  slay ;  cola  (for  coi-a), 
from  col  in  cold,  to  cultivate. 

342.  In  COMPOUND  ADJECTIVES,  the  first  part  is  generally  the 
stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition ; 
and  the  second  is  the  stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  or  a  stem  from 
a  verbal  root: 

leti-fer,  death-bearing,   from  Isti-fer  in  IStum     and  fero. 

magn-animus,  magnanimous,     "      magno-animo    "   magnus    "    animus, 
per-facilis,        very  easy,  "      per-facili         .  "  per  "    facilis. 

I.  Compounds   in  ceps,   fer,  ger,  dicus,  ficus,  and  volus   deserve 
notice : 

Parti-ceps,  taking  part ;  auri~fer,  gold-bearing ;  armi-ger,  carrying  arms ; 
fati-dicus,  predicting  fate ;  miri-ficus,  causing  wonder ;  bene-volus,  well- 
wishing. 

NOTE.— Ceps  (toTcap-s)  is  from  the  root  cap  in  capio,  to  take;  fer,  from  fer  in  fero, 
to  bear;  ger,  from  ger  in  gero,  to  carry;  dicus  (for  dic-o-s),  from  die  in  dico,  to  make 
known;  ficus  (for  fac-o-s),  from  fao  in  facio,  to  make;  volus  (for  vol-o-s),  from  vol  in 
void,  to  wish. 

343.  COMPOUND  NOUNS  and  ADJECTIVES  are  divided  according 
to  signification  into  three  classes: 

L  DETERMINATIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  which  the  second  part  is  qualified  by 
the  first : 

Inter-rex,  interrex ;  merl-dies*  midday ;  bene-volus,  well-wishing ;  per~ 
mdgmis,  very  great ;  in-dignus,  unworthy. 

II.  OBJECTIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  which  the  second  part  is  limited  by  the 
first  as  object : 

Prin-ceps,  taking  the  first  place ;  belK-ger,  waging  war ;  ju-dex,  judge, 
one  who  dispenses  (makes  known)  justice  ;  komi-cida,  one  who  slays  a  man ; 
ytgri-cola,  one  who  tills  the  field.  See  other  examples  in  342, 1. 

III.  POSSESSIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  origin  mostly  adjectives.     They  desig- 

O  is  dropped  in  remese,  and  «  injtidece ;  see  27 ;  36,  3,  note  8. 
A,  weakened  to  i,  unites  with  the  preceding  i,  forming  I. 
.V  dropped,  and  o  weakened  to  i;  see  36,  8,  note  8. 
The  stem-vowel  o  ofagro  is  weakened  to  i.  agri;  see  22 
From  medium  and  dies. 


VERBS.  175 

nate  qualities  or  attributes  as  possessed  by  some  person  or  thing,  and  an 
often  best  rendered  by  supplying  having  or  possessing : 

Aeni-pes,  having  bronze  feet ; l  celeri-p'es,  swift-footed ;  ali-pes,  wing-foot- 
ed, having  wings  for  feet ;  magn-animus,  having  a  great  soul ;  un-animus^ 
having  one  mind ;  long-aevus,  of  great  age,  having  a  long  life. 

344.  COMPOUND  VERBS. — Verbs  in  general  are  compounded 
only  with  prepositions,  originally  adverbs : " 

,  Ab-eO,  to  go  away ;  ex-eOy  to  go  out ;  prdd-ed,  to  go  forth ;  con-vocd,  to  call 
together;  de-cidd,  to  fall  off;  prae-dlc6,  to  foretell;  re-ducd,  to  lead  back; 
re-jieid)  to  repair,  to  make  anew.8 

1.  Facio  and  fid  may  also  unite  with  verbal  stems  in  e : 

Cale-facid,  to  make  warm ;  cale-fid,  to  be  made  warm,  become  warm ; 
W>e-facid,  to  cause  to  totter ;  pate-fatiO,  to  open,  cause  to  be  open. 

2.  Verbs  are  often  united  with  other  words  in  writing  without  strictly 
forming  compounds : 

Manu  mittd  or  mawO-mittd,  to  emancipate,  let  go  from  the  hand ;  satis 
facid  or  satis-facid,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for ;  animum  ad-verto  or  ani/m-ad 
verto,  to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

3.  Verbs  in  foo  and  facto,  like  the  following,  are  best  explained  not 
as  compounds  but  as  denominatives : 4 

Aedi-fic6,  to  build,  from  aedifex  /  ampli-ficO*  to  enlarge ;  cale~factot  to 
make  warm,  from  cale-factus. 

4.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes  : 

1)  Short  a  and  e  generally  become  i:  habeO,  ad-hibeo;  teneo,  con-tinea.    But  a 
sometimes  becomes  «  or  u :  carpo,  de-cerpo  ;  calcO,  con-culcO. 

2)  At  becomes  ; ;  caedt),  in-cldo. 

8)  Au  generally  becomes  <>  or  u  :  plaudo,  en-plodo;  claudo,  in-cludo. 

5.  FORM  AND  MEANING  OF  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. — The  following 
facts  are  added  for  reference : 

A,  ab,  abs. — 1.  FORM  :  a  before  m  and  t>,  and  sometimes  before  //  abt 
before  c,  y,  <,  and,  with  the  loss  of  J,  also  before  p  • ;  au  in  au-ferd  and  ait- 
fmjio ;  ab  before  the  other  consonants,  and  before  vowels. — 2.  MEANING: 
(1) '  away,'  '  off ' :  d-mitlo,  to  send  away  ;  abt-condO,  to  hide  away  ;  as-portd. 

1  Observe  the  force  of  the  compound.    Aenun  pes  means  a  braeenfoot,  but  aeni-pit 
neans  having  braze.n  feet;  see  also  340,  III.,  note. 

2  The  words  thus  formed  are  strictly  compounds  of  verbs  with  adverb*,  as  the  origi- 
nal type  of  these  compounds  was  formed  before  the  adverb  became  a  preposition. 

3  Observe  in  these  examples  the  strict  adverbial  use  of  the  particles  a&,  «a-,  etc.,  away, 
out,  etc.    Impositions,  on  the  other  hand,  always  denote  relations,  and  are  aiiaciUari 
to  the  case-ending» ;  see  307,  foot-note. 

4  In  some  of  these  the  primitive  is  not  found  in  actual  use 
•  As  abk-pello,  as-pellc.  to  drive  away. 


176  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

to  carry  off ;  au-J "us/id,  to  flee  away ;  ab-svm,  to  be  away  ;  ab-4),  to  go  away 
ab-jido  or  ab-icidj  to  throw  away ;  (2)  in  adjectives,  generally  negative  : 
d-m2ns,  without  mind,  frantic ;  ab-si/milis,  unlike. 

Ad. — 1.  FOKM  :  ad  before  vowels,  and  before  J,  <£,  /",  A,  /,  m,  n,  q,  and  v, 
sometimes  before  g,  I,  r,  and  s,  rarely  before  p  and  t ;  d  assimilated  before 
c.  generally  before  p  and  t,  and  sometimes  before  </,  I,  q,  r,  and  «/  gener- 
ally dropped  before  gn,  so,  sp,  and  rf.s— 2.  MEANING:  'to,'  'toward,'  '  V: 
One's  self' ;  '  on,'  '  at,'  '  near,'  '  by ' ;  '  besides ' :  ad-duco,  to  lead  to ;  ac-  viJo, 
to  fall  to,  happen ;  ad-moved,  to  move  toward ;  ac-cipio,  to  receive,  take  to 
one's  self ;  ac-cingo,  to  gird  on ;  ad-lStro  or  al-lHtrO,  to  bark  at ;  ad-sum, 
to  be  present  or  near ;  ad-std  or  a-sto,  to  stand  near,  to  stand  by  ;  ad-disco, 
to  learn  besides. 

Ante. — 1.  FOKM:  unchanged  except  in  anti-cipo,  'to  rake  beforehand,' 
and  in  composition  with  tto  :  ante-std  or  anti-std,  to  stand  before. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  before,' '  beforehand ' :  ante-curro,  to  run  before ;  ante-habeo,  to  prefer 
— lit.,  to  have  or  hold  before. 

Circum. — 1.  FORM  :  generally  unchanged,  but  m  is  sometimes  dropped 
In  compounds  of  ed,  to  go :  circum-ed  or  circu-eo,  to  go  around.  — 2.  MEAN 
ING  :  '  around,'  '  about ' :  circum-mittd,  to  send  around. 

Com.3 — 1.  FORM  :  com  before  5,  m,  p  ;  co  before  vowels,4  A,  and  gn , 6  con 
or  col  before  If  cor  before  r;  con  before  the  other  consonants. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  (1)  '  together,'  '  with,'  in  various  senses :  com-bibo,  to  drink  together ; 
com-mittd,  to  let  go  together ;  co-e6,  to  go  together ;  col-loquor,  to  talk  with ; 
cdn-fligd,  to  contend  with ;  (2) '  completely,'  '  thoroughly ' :  con-Jicio,  to  com- 
plete, make  completely;  con-cito,  to  rouse  thoroughly;  c6n-#umot  to  con- 
sume, take  wholly  ;  con-densits,  very  dense. 

E,  ex. — 1.  FORM:  ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  A,  />,'  q,  «,7 1,  and  with 
assimilation  before  f  ;*  I  before  the  other  consonants.9 — 2.  MEANING:  (1) 
•  out,'  '  forth,'  '  without,'  implying  '  freedom  from ' :  ex-eO,  to  go  out,  go  forth ; 
ex-cidff.  to  fall  out ;  e-do,  to  put  forth ;  ex-sangvis,  without  blood,  bloodless  ; 
exronerd,  to  unload,  disburden ;  (2)  '  thoroughly,'  '  completely,'  '  successful- 
ly ' :  ex-uro,  to  burn  up  ;  e-discO,  to  learn  by  heart ;  ef-JiciO,  to  effect,  do  suc- 
cessfully ;  e-durus,  very  hard. 

In. — 1.  FORM  :  n  sometimes  assimilated  before  /,  often  before  «i>°  and  r ; 

i  See  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

•  Sometimes  retained  :  ad-gnoscOor  d-gnSscO;  ad-sto  or  a-sto. 

•  An  earlier  form  for  cum. 

4  A  contraction  often  takes  place :  co-agO,  do-go.  Com  is  sometimes  retained  before 
e  or  i,  and  co  or  con  is  used  before  i=ji:  com-edo,  com-itor,  co-icio  or  eon-iciOs 
con-iicio  or  con-jicio;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

•  Co  also  appears  in  co-necto,  co-ntveo,  co-nitor,  and  co-nUbium. 

•  But  e-potfj  and  f-pottts;  eoe-scendo  or  e-scendo. 

•  S  is  sometimes  dropped  after  x :  exspecio  or  ese-pecto. 

•  C  before  /  ia  not  recommended;  Qf*fvn  U  better  than  ec-fero. 

•  But  eat-lfx. 

>•  Im  is  the  approved  form  be&re  ft.  »,  «ad  «.  e»o«<Ulir  in  im-perotor,  im-perO,  XD( 
im-ptriitm. 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  177 

often  changed  to  m  before  b  and  p  ;  in  other  situations  unchanged. — 2.  MIAN- 
INS  :  '  in,'  '  into,'  '  on,*  *  at,'  '  against ' :  in-colo,  to  dwell  in ;  in-eo,  to  go 
into ;  vnwnigro,  to  move  into ;  in-nitor,  to  lean  on ;  in-tueor,  to  look  at ; 
ir-rided,  to  laugh  at ;  im-p&ffnff,  to  fight  against. 

Inter. — 1.  FORM  :  unchanged,  except  in  intel-legO,  to  understand. — 2. 
MEANING  :  '  between,'  sometimes  involving  interruption* '  together' :  inter- 
venio,  to  come  between,  intervene ;  inter-died,  to  forbid,  interdict ;  inter- 
necto,  to  tie  together. 

Ob. — 1.  FOEM:  b  assimilated  before  c,f,  g,  and  p ;  dropped  in  owitto, 
fx>  omit,  and  in  operio,  to  cover ;  in  other  situations  generally  unchanged.* — 
2.  MEANING:  (1)  '  before,'  'in  the  way,'  'toward,'  'against,'  especially  of  an 
obstruction  or  opposition :  cf-fero,  to  bring  before ;  ob-sto,  to  stand  in  the  way ; 
oc-currd,  to  run  toward,  run  to  meet ;  op-pugno,  to  attack,  fight  against ;  (2) 
4  down,'  '  completely ' :  oc-tido,  to  cut  down,  kill ;  op-primo,  to  press  down, 
to  overwhelm. 

Per. — 1.  FOKM:  generally  unchanged,  but  r  is  sometimes  assimilated  be- 
fore I,*  and  is  dropped  before  j  in  compounds  ofjuro,  as  pe-jero,*  to  swear 
falsely. — 2.  MEANING  :  '  through,'  '  thoroughly,'  sometimes  in  a  bad  sense  with 
the  idea  of  breaking  through,  disregarding :  per-lego,  to  read  through;  per- 
discd,  to  learn  thoroughly  ;  per-fidm,  perfidious,  breaking  faith. 

Post. — 1.  FOKM:  unchanged,  except  in  pd-merium,  the  open  space  on 
either  side  of  the  city-wall,  and  pos-meridiamisf  of  the  afternoon. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  after,'  '  behind ' :  post-habed,  to  place  after,  have  after,  esteem  less. 

Pr5,  pr6d. — 1.  FORM:  pro  is  the  usual  form,  both  before  vowels  and 
before  consonants ;  prod,  the  original  form,  is  retained  in  a  few  words  before 
vowels.* — 2.  MEANING:  'forth,'  'forward,'  'before,'  *for':  prdd^O,  to  go 
forth  or  forward ;  prd-currO,  to  run  forward ;  prd-pugno,  to  fight  in  front  of, 
fight  for;  pro-hibeo,  to  hold  aloof,  i.  e.,  out  of  one's  reach,  hence  to  prohibit ; 
prd-mittd,  to  send  forth,  to  hold  out  as  a  promise,  to  promise. 

Sub. — 1.  FORM:  b  assimilated  before  c, /,  g,  and  p,  and  often  before  m 
and  r  ;  dropped  before  sp  ;  in  other  situations  unchanged.  The  form  subt, 
shortened  to  BUS,  occurs  in  a  few  words :  vus-cipio,  sux-pcndd. — 2.  MEANING  : 
'  under,'  '  down,'  '  from  under,'  *  up ' ;  'in  place  of,'  '  secretly ' ;  '  somewhat. 
'  slightly ' : 7  tub-ed,  to  go  under ;  eub-Wjor,  to  slip  down ;  sub-due/),  to  draw 
from  under,  withdraw ;  tw-cipid,  to  undertake ;  sus-cito,  to  lift  up,  arouse ; 

1  It  ia  used  In  several  compounds  referring  to  death:  inter-eo,  to  die;  inter-Jido 
to  kill. 

8  Obs  seems  to  occur  in  a  few  words :  olf*-ol?*co,  on-tendO  for  obs-tendn  (b  dropped) 
though  these  words  are  sometimes  otherwise  explained;  thus  ob-sole«co,  as  a  compound 
ot«ole»cO  from  *ole<~>. 

*  As  p«r-le(/f>,  ptl-legn ;  per-lMo,  pel-lido ;  but  per  is  preferable. 
4  For  per-jurn. 

'  Poti-merldianus  is  also  used;  pfi-merfdidnut  Is  not  approved,  though  it  occnrt 

•  As  In  ]>ri>d-eo,  prf>d-igO,  prod-iyut,  and  before  «  in  the  compound  of  turn  :  j>rod 
t-s,  prfid-e-xt,  etc. 

7  Mostly  in  adjectives  :  wb-absurdwi,  somewhat  absurd  ;  tHb-dolut,  somewhat  crafty 
udfrtf,  somewhat  impudent;  »ub-inv~t«ux,  somewhat  odiour 

io 


176  PREPOSITIONS   TN  COMPOSITION. 


6,  to  put  in  place  of,  to  substitute  ;  mb-ripio,  to  take  away  secrctlj 
sub-rideo,  to  smile,  laugh  slightly  ;  sitb-difficilis,  somewhat  difficult. 

Trans.  —  1.  FORM:  it  generally  drops  «  before  s,  and  it  often  drops  m 
before  d,  j,1  I,  in,  n;  it  is  otherwise  unchanged.  —  2.  MEANING:  'across,' 
'through,'  '  completely  '  :  trdns-currO,  to  run  across  ;  trd-duco,  to  lead  across  ; 
trdn-silio,  to  leap  across  ;  trdns-igd,  to  transact  ;  to  finish,  do  completely  &» 
thoroughly  —  Ut.,  to  drive  through. 

8.  FORM  AND  MEANING  OF  THE  INSEPARABLE  PREPOSITIONS.  —  The  follow 
ng  facts  are  added  for  reference  : 

Ambi,  amb.'2  —  1.  FORM  :  amb  before  vowels  ;  ambi,  am,  or  an,3  before 
consonants.  —  2.  MEANING  :  '  around,'  '  on  both  sides,'  '  in  two  directions  '  : 
amb-io,*  to  go  round  ;  amb-iffd,  to  act  in  two  ways,  move  in  different  direc- 
tions, to  hesitate  ;  am-puto,  to  cut  around  or  off;  an-qulro,  to  search  round. 

Dis,  di.  —  1.  FORM  :  dis  beforec,  p,  q,  t,  before  s  followed  by  a  vowel,  and, 
with  assimilation,  before//  but  dir  for  die  before  a  vowel  or  h  ;  dl  in  most 
other  situations  ;  but  both  dis  and  dl  occur  before  j.*  —  2.  MEANING:  'apart,' 
4  asunder,'  6  '  between,'  sometimes  negative  *  and  sometimes  intensive  :  die- 
tineo,  to  hold  apart  ;  di-duco,  to  lead  apart,  divide  ;  dif-fugid,  to  flee  asunder, 
or  in  different  directions  ;  dir-imd,  to  take  in  pieces,  destroy  ;  dis-sentio,  to 
think  differently,  dissent;  di-judico,  to  judge  between;  dis-plieeo,  to  dis- 
please, not  to  please  ;  dif-Jirilis,  difficult,  not  easy  ;  di-laudd,  to  praise  highly. 

In.  —  1.  FORM  :  n  dropped  before  gn  ;  otherwise  like  the  preposition  in  . 
—  2.  MEANING  :  *  not,'  *  un  '  :  i-g  nosed,  not  to  know,  not  to  recollect,  to  par- 
don ;  im-memor,  unmindful  ;  in-imlcus,  unfriendly. 

Por,  for  port.8  —  1.  FORM:  r  assimilated  before  I  and  «/  in  other  situa- 
tions, por.  —  2.  MEANING:  'forth,'  'forward,'  'near'  :  pol-liceor,  to  hold  forth, 
offer,  promise  ;  pos-sideo,  to  possess  ;  •  por-riyo,  to  hold  out  or  forth,  to  offer. 

Bed,  re.—  1.  FORM:  red  before  vowels,  before  h,  and  in  red-do  ;  re  in 
other  situations.  —  2.  MEANING  :  '  back,'  '  again,'  '  in  return  '  :  »°  red-eo,  to  go 
back  ;  re-ficid,  to  repair,  make  again  ;  red-amd,  to  love  in  return. 

Sed,11  s€.  —  1.  FORM  :  sed  before  vowels  ;  sf  before  consonants.  —  2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  apart,'  'aside'  :  se-cedo,  to  go  apart,  secede  ;  se-pond,  to  put  aside  or  apart. 

NOTE.—  For  the  Composition  of  Adverbs,  see  304,  I.,  2  ;  3O4,  II.,  1,  note  ; 
304,  IV.,  note  2. 

1  Or  before  i  =.j  OTJi;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2  Compare  amb6,  both,  and  a/^t,  around,  on  both  sides. 

3  An  before  c,  q,  f,  and  t. 

•  For  amb-efi. 

•  Din-jwngr>,  dl-jfidicO. 

•  Both  literally  '  apart'  in  respect  to  place  or  position,  and  figwrativtHy  '  opart1  In 
eutiment  or  opinion. 

7  Especially  in  adjectives  :  die-par,  unequal  ;  dis-ximilig,  unlike. 

8  Greek  iropri.  wport,  n-pos,  to,  toward,  see  Curtius,  381. 

•  To  sit  near  and  so  to  control. 

10  Sometimes  negative,  not,  un-:  re-signa,  to  unseal;  re-cir/da,  to  open 

11  Probably  an  old  ablative  of  sul  and  identical  with  «*-J.  \iut 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 

PART  THIRD. 
SYNTAX 


CHAPTER    I. 
SYNTAX    OF    SENTENCES. 


t.  CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES- 

845.  SYNTAX  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

346.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  either  a 
single  thought  or  two  or  more  thoughts. 

347.  A  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  expresses  a  single  thought : 
Deus  mundum  aedificuvit,  God  made  (built)  tfte  world.   Cic. 

348.  A  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  expresses  one  leading  thought  with 
one  or  more  dependent  thoughts: 

DOnec  eris  fellx,  multds  numerable  amlcOs,  so  long  as  you  shall  be  prosper- 
ous, you  will  number  many  friend*.  Ovid. 

NOTE  1. — In  this  example  two  simple  sentences— (1)  '•you  will  be  prosperous'  and. 
(2)  '  you  witt  number  many  friends ' — are  so  united  that  the  first  only  specifies  the  timt 
of  the  second  :  You  trill  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long  as  you  shall  bt  pros- 
perous. The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Clause*  or  Members. 

NOTR  2.— The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which  makes  complete  sense  of  itself— 
multog  mimertibis  am  f* — Is  called  the  Principal  or  Independent  Clause;  and  the 
part  which  is  dependent  upon  it — doneo  eri«  fe/ve — is  called  the  Subordinate  or  De 
ptndent  Clause. 

349.  A  COMPOUND  SENTENCE  expresses  two  or  more  independ 
«nt  thoughts: 

Sol  ruit  et  montCs  umbrantur,  th«  9un  hastens  to  its  setting  and  th«  mvun 
tains  fire  shaded.  Verg. 

350.  A  DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  an  assertion : 
Miltiades  accfisatus  eat,  Mittiailes  wot  accused.   Ntp. 

351.  An  INTEKROGATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion: 

Quis  loquitur,  who  upealcsf  Ter.  Quis  nftn  paupertatem  extimeseit, 
viho  does  not  /ear  poverty?  Cic.  Quid  ais,  n'hat  do  you  say?  Tcr.  EC- 


180  SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

quid  •  anlmadvertis  silentium,  do  you  not  notice  fhe  silence  f  Cic.  Qualis  es1 
6  rati.6,  ichat  kind  of  an  oration,  is  it  ?  Cic.  Quot  sunt,  how  many  are  there  / 
Plaut.  Ubi  sunt,  where  are  they  f  Cic.  Ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in 
the  world  are  we?  Cic.  Vlsne  fortunam  experlri  meam,  do  you  wish  to  try 
my  fortune?  Cio.  Nonne  nobilitart  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  to  be  renowned? 
Cic.  Num  igitur  peccamus,  are  we  then  at  fault  f  Cic. 

1.  IOTEBBOGATIVE  WORDS. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain  some 
interrogative  word — either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or 
one  of  the  interrogative  particles:8  -ne,  no/me,  num  ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  1. — Questions  with  -ne  ask  for  information:  Scribitne,  'is  he  writing?'  N« 
is  sometimes  appended  to  u,trum,  num,  or  an,  without  affecting  their  meaning,  and  some- 
times inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum  : 

Numne  ferre  arma  debuerunt,  ought  they  to  have  borne  arms  t  Cic.  Utrum  tace- 
am  no.  an  praedlcem,  shall  I  be  silent,  or  shall  I  speak  f  Ter. 

NOTE  2. — Questions  with  nonne  expect  the  answer  yes:  Nfnme  seribit,  'is  he  not 
writing?1 

NOTE  3.— Questions  with  num  expect  the  answer  no :  Num  sortoit,  Ms  he  writing?' 

NOTE  4.— For  questions  with  an,  see  363,  note  4. 

2.  The  particle  -ne  is  always  appended  to  some  other  word,  generally  to 
the  emphatic  word  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.,  to  the  word  upon  which  the  ques- 
tion especially  turns ;  appended  to  non,  it  forms  nonne  : 

Visne  experirl,  do  you,  WISH  to  try  f  Ctc.  Tune  id  veritus  es,  did  YOU  fear  this .' 
Cic.  Omnisne  peciinia  soluta  est,  has  ALL  the  money  been  paid  t  Cic.  Hocinest 
(=  h Seine  est  '*)  officium  patris,  is  THIS  the  duty  of  a  father  f  Ter.  Uiiquamne  vidlsti 
have  you  EVER  seen  f  Cic.  Nonne  volunt,  do  they  NOT  wish  t  Cic. 

3.  Sometimes  no  interrogative  word  is  used,  especially  in  impassioned 
discourse : 

Crgditls,  do  you  believe  t  Verg.    Ego  nOn  poterO,  xhall  I  not  be  ablet  Oic. 

4.  An  emphatic  tandem,  meaning  indeed^  pray,  then,  often  occurs  in  inter- 
rogative sentences: 

Quod  genus  tandem  est  Istud  gldriae,  what  kind  of  glory  is  that,  pray  t  da 
NOTB  1. — Nam,  appended  to  an  interrogative,  also  adds  emphasis: 
Numnam  haec  audlvit.  did  he  hear  thw,  pray  t  Ter. 

NOTE  2. — For  Two  Interrogate  es  in  the  same  clause,  and  for  an  Interrogative  with 
tantus,  see  454,  3  and  4. 

352.  ANSWERS. — Instead  of  replying  to  a  question  of  fact  with 
a  simple  particle  meaning  yes  or  no,  the  Latin  usually  repeats  the 
verb  or  some  emphatic  word,  often  with  prorsus,  vero,  and  the  like, 
or  if  negative,  with  non : 

DIxitne  causam,  did  he  ttate  the  came?  Dlxit,  he  gtated  it.  Cic.  Pos- 
sumusne  tutl  esse,  can.  we  be  safe  ?  Non  possumus,  we  can  not.  Cic. 


1  Ecquid,  though  the  neuter  accusative  of  an  interrogative  pronoun,  has  become  ii 
effect  a  mere  particle  with  the  force  of  nonne, 
9  See  311,  8,  foot-note. 
'  8««  87,  note. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  StiXTENVUS.  \%\ 

NOTE  1. — Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used — affirmatively,  tune,  etiam,ita,  ver<\ 
••wte,  etc. ;  negatively,  non,  minime,  e'tc, 

Vgnitne,  has  he  come  t    Non,  no    1'laut. 

NOTE  2. — Sometimes,  without  an  actual  repetition  of  the  emphatic  word,  some  equi- 
ralent  expression  is  used : 

Tuain  vestem  dGtraxit  tib!,  did  he  atrip  off  your  coatt  Factum,  he  did— lit.,  dona 
for  it  was  don«.  Ter. 

353.  DOUBLE  or  DISJUNCTIVE  QUESTIONS  offer  a  choice  or  alter 
native,  and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  : 

1.  The  first  clause  has  utrum  or  -nc,  and  the  second  an: 

Utrurn  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est,  is  that  your  fault  or  ours*  Cic, 
tomamue  veniO  an  hie  maneO,  do  I  go  to  Rome,  or  do  I  remain  here?  Cio. 

2.  The  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  an,  or  anne  : 
filoquar  an  sileam,  shall  I  utter  it,  or  Tceep  silence?  Verg.     Gablni5  dlcaia 

anne  Pompeio,  to  Gabinius,  shall  I  sat/,  or  to  Pompey  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Other  forms  are  rare.1 

NOTK  2. —  Utrum  sometimes  stands  before  a  disjunctive  question  with  -»«  in  the  flrsl 
clause  and  an  in  the  second: 

Utrum,  taceamne,  an  praedicem,  which,  shall  1  be  silent,  or  shall  I  speak  ?    Ter. 

NOTE  3. — When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  particle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annfm  or  necne: 

8unt  haec  tua  verba  necne,  are.  theiw  your  words  or  notf  Cic. 

NOTK  4.— By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  an, 
in  the  sense  of  or,  implying  a  negative  answer  : 

An  hoc  timemus,  or  do  ice  fear  this  f  Liv. 

NOTE  5. — Disjunctive  questions  sometimes  have  three  or  more  members :  a 

Oablnio  anne  PompCiO  an  utrique,  to  Gabiniwt,  or  Pompey,  or  both  f  Cic. 

NOTB  §.— Disjunctive  questions  inquire  which  alternative  is  true.  These  must  be 
distinguished — 

1)  From  such  single  questions  as  inquire  whether  either  alternative  is  true : 
Solem  dlcam  aut  lutiam  deum,  shall  I  call  the  sun  or  the  moon  a  god  t  *  Cic. 

2)  From  two  separate  questions,  introduced  respectively  by  num,  implying  a  negative 
answer,  and  by  an,  implying  an  affirmative  answer: 

Num  furls  1  an  ludis  m6?  are  you  mad  !  or  do  you  not  rather  mock  me  T   Hor. 

354.  An  IMPERATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  a  command, 
3xhortation,  or  entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  cultivate  juttice.    Cic. 

355.  An  EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  an  exclama- 
tion: 

Rellquit  quOs  viros,  w hat  men  he  has  left .'  Cic. 


1  Thus,  in  Vergil,  -nt  occurs  In  both  clauses,  also  -tie  in  the  first  with  seu  in  the 
second.  In  Horace,  -ne  occurs  in  the  second  clause  with  no  particle  in  the  first. 

a  Cicero,  In  his  oration  Pro  Domfi,  xxii.,  57,  has  a  question  of  this  kind  extended  t» 
eight  clauses,  the  first  introduced  by  utrum  and  each  of  the  others  by  an. 

9  Observe  that  in  this  sens*  aut,  not  an,  Is  used. 


182  SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

NOT«  1.— Many  sentences  Introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns,  adjectives,  or  ftd 
*erbs  may  be  so  spoken  as  to  become  exclamatory : 

Quibus  gaudiis  exsultabis,  in  what  joys  will  you  exult  t  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — Some  declarative  and  imperative  sentences  readily  become  exclamatory. 

NOTE  3.— Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  elliptical. 

II.    ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES. 

356.  The  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  in  its  MOST  SIMPLE  FORM  consist* 
«f  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied: 

1.  The  SUBJECT,  or  that  of  which  it  speaks; 

2.  The  PREDICATE,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject: 
Cluilius  moritur,  Cluilius  dies. 1  Liv. 

357.  The  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  in  its  MOST  EXPANDED  FORM  con- 
sists only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modifiers: 

In  his  castris  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur,  Cluilius,  the  Alban  Icing 
dies  in  this  camp?  Liv. 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate  of  a  sentence  are  called  the  Principal  01 
Essential  elements ;  their  modifiers,  the  Subordinate  elements. 

2.  The  elements,  whether  principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple 
or  complex : 

1)  Simple,  when  not  modified  by  other  words ;  see  358. 

2)  Complex,  when  thus  modified  ;  see  359. 

358.  The  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  of  a  sentence  must  be  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a  noun  : ' 

Bex  dficrevit,  the  king  decreed.  Nep.  Ego  scribo,  /  write.  Cic.  Ibam, 
I  was  walking.  Hor.  Vlcimus,  we  nave  conquered.  Cic.  Video  idem  valet, 
the  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.  Quint. 

359.  The  COMPLEX  SUBJECT  consists  of  the  simple  subject  with 
its  modifiers : 

Populus  Romdnus  decrevit,  the  ROMAN  people  decreed.  Cic.  Cluilius  rex 
moritur,  Cluilius  THE  KINO  dies.  Liv.  Rex  RutuUrum,  the  king  OF  THE 
BUTULI.  Liv.  Libert  officiis,  the  look  ON  DUTIES.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  subject  is  thns  modified— 

1)  By  an  ADJECTIVE  :  Popnlus  Romanus. 

2)  By  a  NOUN  IN  APPOSITION  :  Cluilius  rex. 
8)  By  a  GENITIVE:  Rex  Rutul<~>rum. 

4)  By  a  NOUN  WITH  A  PREPOSITION  :  Liber  d?  offlcils. 

1  Here  CMUu»  is  the  subject,  and  moritur  the  predicate. 

2  Here  Cluilius,  Albdnus  rfx,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and  in 
ft?«  castrts  moritur  is  the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

8  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  contained  or  implied  in  the  personal  ending.  Thus 
m  in  llia-m  is  a  pronominal  stem  =  «fire>,  and  is  the  true  original  subject  of  the  verb.  Sed 
il§o  247;  368  2,  foot-note. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES.  183 

NOTE  2. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify  another  noun  or  pro- 
noun denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  called  an  Appositive  ;  as  Clullius  rex, '  Clui- 
lius  the  king.1 

Norn  3. — Any  noun  may  be  modified  like  the  subject. 

NOTE  4.— Sometimes  adverbs  occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns : 

Non  ignari  surnus  ante  inalorum,  w»  are  not  ignorant  of  PAST  misfortunes. 
Verg. 

360.  The  SIMPLE  PREDICATE  must  be  either  a  verb,  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a  noun  or  adjective  : 

Miltiades  est  accusdtus,  Miltiades  WAS  ACCUSED.  Nep.  Tu  es  testis,  you  AKF  j» 
WITNESS.  Cic.  Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  BLIND.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Like  sum,  severe!  other  verbs  sometimes  unite  with  a  noun  or  an  adjective 
to  form  the  predicate ;  see  362,  2.  A  noun  or  an  adjective  thus  used  is  called  a  Predi 
cute  Noun  or  Predicate  Adjective. 

NOTE  2. — Sum  with  an  adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate : 

Omnia  recte  snnt,  all  things  are  RIGHT.  Cic. 

361.  The  COMPLEX  PREDICATE  consists  of  the  simple  predicate 
with  its  modifiers: 

Miltiades  Attends  llberavit,  Miltiades  liberated  ATHENS.  Nep.  Laborl 
student,  they  devote  themselves  TO  LABOB.  Caes.  Me  rogavit  sententiam,  Tie 
usked  ME  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Pens  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the,  bridgt  furnished 
A  PASSAGE  TO  THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  Bella  fellciter  gessit,  he  waged  wars  ncc- 
CESSFULLY.  Cic.  In  It/Is  castrls  moritur,  he  dies  (where?)  IN  THIS  CAMP.  Liv 
Vere  convfinere,  they  assembled  (when?)  IN  THE  SPKING.  Liv. 

1.  The  Predicate,  when  a  verb,  is  thus  modified — 

1)  By  an  ACCUSATIVE  :  Attends  llberavit. 

2)  By  a  DATIVE  :  Laborl  student. 

8)  By  two  ACCUSATIVES  :  Me  rogavit  xententiam. 

4)  By  an  ACCUSATIVE  and  a  DATIVE  :  Iter  hostibus  dedit. 

5)  By  an  ADVERB  :  Fellciter  gessit. 

6)  By  an  ADVERBIAL  PHRASE:  In,  hi*  caxtrls  moritur. 

NOTH  1.— Still  other  modifiers  occur  with  special  predicates;  see  406,  409,  41O, 
422. 

NOTE  2. — No  one  predicate  admits  all  the  modifiers  here  given.  Thus  only  transi- 
tive verbs  admit  an  Accusative  (371);  only  intransitive  verbs,  a  Dative  alone  (384, 1.); 
and  only  upecinl  verbs,  two  Accusatives  (374). 

2.  A  PREDICATE  NOUN  is  modified  like  the  subject: 

Haec  virtus  omnium  est  rCglna  virtutum,  this  virtue  in  the  queen  OF  ALI 
VIRTUES.  Cic.  See  also  369,  notes  1  and  3. 

3.  A  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  is  modified — 

1)  By  an  ADVERB:  Satis  humilis  est,  he  ^s  SUFFICIENTLY  humble.   Liv. 

2)  By  an  OBLIQUE  CASE  :  AvidI  laudis  fuerunt,  they  were  desirous  OF  PRAISS 
Cic.     Omn!  aetati  mors  est  commfmis,  death  ix  common  TO  EVERY  AOE.    Cic 

sunt  amicitia,  they  are  worthy  OK  FRIENDSHIP.    Cic. 

NOTE. — Any  adjective  may  be  modified  like  the  predicate  adjective : 

Eqnes  ROiuauus  satis  litteratus,  a  Roman  knight  sufficiently  literary.   Cic. 


184  8YNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 

CHAPTER  IL 
SYNTAX    OF    NOUNS. 


SECTION    I. 

AGREEMENT     OP     NOUNS. 

RULE  I.— Predicate  Nouns.1 

362.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  CASE  :  * 

Brutus  c&stdt*  llbertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  GUARDIAN  of  liberty.  Liv. 
Serviua  rex  est  declarutus,  Ser-vius  was  declared  KINO.  Liv.  Orestem  se  ease 
durit,  he  said  that  he  was  ORESTES.  Cio.  See  36O,  note  1. 

NOTE.— This  role  applies  also  to  uouns  predicated  of  pronouns  :* 

Ego  turn  niintius,  I  am  a  messenger.  Liv. 

1.  A  Predicate  Noun  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must 
agree  in  GENDER  as  well  as  in  CASE  : 

Usus  magister*  est,  experience  is  AN  INBTBUOTOB.  Cio.  Historia  est  ma- 
yittra*  (not  magister),  history  is  AN  INSTRUOTBESS.  Cio. 

2.  PREDICATE  NOUNS  are  most  frequent  with  the  following  verbs : 

1)  With  sum  and  a  few  intransitive  verbs— Svado,  exsisto,  appareO,  and 
the  like: 

SomS  mdgnus  evaserat,  Ae  had  become  (turned  out)  A  GREAT  MAN.  do. 
Exstitit  vindex  libertatis,  he  became  (stood  forth)  TBS  DEFBNDEB  of  liberty. 
Cio.  See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

2)  With  Passive  Verbs  of  appointing,  making,  naming,  regarding,  es- 
teeming, and  the  like : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  wot  declared  KING.  Liv.  Mundus  civi- 
tat  exlstimatur,  the  world  is  regarded  as  A  STATE.  Cic. 

NOTK  1. — In  the  poets,  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verb*  of  I 
great  variety  of  significations.  Thus  with  audio  =  appellor: 

Rex  audlstl,  you  have  been  catted  KINO  ;  1.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  HOT. 
Ego  divdrn  incedo  regina,  I  walk  AS  QITEEX  of  thi  gods.  Verg. 

1  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  Rules  will  be  presented  in  a  body  on  page  824. 
9  For  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

*  In  these  examples  c'tstds,  rex,  and  Orestem  are  all  predicate  nouns,  and  agree  in 
cas«  respectively  with  Brutus,  Servius,  and  sS  (536). 

*  As  all  substantive  pronouns  have  the  construction  of  nouns;  see  182. 

*  Observe  that  in  usws  magister  est,  the  masculine  form,  magister,  is  used  to  agre« 
m  gender  with  ftsus ;  while  in  historia  est  magistra,  the  feminine  form,  maytetra,  If 
used  to  agree  in  gender  with  historia. 


APPOSITIVES.  185 

WOTB  1— Tor  Predicate  Accusative,  see  373, 1. 

Nora  3.— The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  Ablative,  and  low 
it  numero  (or  in  numero)  with  the  Genitive,  are  often  kindred  in  force  to  Predicata 
Noon* :  hostl,  pro  hoste,  loco  hostis,  numero  (or  in  numero)  hostium. '  for  an  enemy,1 
or  'as  an  enemy1: 

Fait  omnibus  bond,  it  was  A  BENEFIT  (lit.,  FOR  A  BENEFIT)  to  all.  Cic.  Bicilis 
nObls  pro  aerdrid  fait,  Sicily  teas  A  TREASURY  (FOB  A  TREASURY)  for  us.  Cic.  Quaes- 
tor! parentis  loco  fait,  he  was  A  PARENT  (lit.,  IN  THE  PLACE  OF  A  PARENT)  to  the  questor. 
Cic.  Is  tib!  parentis  numero  fait,  fie  was  A  PARENT  to  you.  Cic.  See  also  Predi 
Gate  Genitive,  4O1. 

3.  PREDICATE  NOUNS  are  used  not  only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with 
INFINITIVES  and  PARTICIPLES,  and  sometimes  without  verb  or  participle : 

Dficlaratus  rex  Numa,  Numa  having  been  declared  KINO.  Liv.  CanlniO 
c&mvle,  Canini'ua  BEING  CONSUL.  Cic.  See  431,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 

NOTE  1. — For  a  PREDICATB  NOMINATIVE  after  the  INFINITIVE  esse,  see  536,  2, 1). 
NOTE  2.— For  an  INFINITIVE  or  a  CLAUSE  instead  of  a  Predicate  Noun ;  see  539;  5O1. 

RULE  II.— Appositives. 

363.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  CASE  with  the  noun  01 
pronoun  which  it  qualifies : 

Clullius  rex  moritur,  Cluiliits  THE  KIHG  dies.  Liv.  UrbCs  Karthagb 
atque  Numantia,  llie  cities  CARTHAGE  and  NUMANTIA.  Cic.  Saguntum, 
foederatam  dviUUem,  exptignavit,  he  look  Sayuntum,  an  allied  TOWN.  Liv. 
See  359,  note  2. 

1.  An  Appositive  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must  agree 
in  GENDER  as  well  as  in  CASE  : 

Clullins  TV./-,'  Cluilius  THE  KING.  Liv.  Venus  reglha,1  Venn*  TUB  WEEN. 
Hor. 

2.  An  Appositive  often  agrees  with  the  pronoun  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb : 

Hosti**  hostem  occldere  volul,  7,  AH  ENEMY,  wished  to  tlay  an  entmy.  Liv. 
8.  Appositives  are  kindred  in  force — 

1)  Generally  to  RELATIVE  clauses : 

Clullius  rftc,  CluiUvs  (who  was)  THE  KINO.    Liv. 

2)  Sometimes  to  other  SUBORDINATE  clauses,3  as  TEMPORAL,  CONOTCBSIVE,  etc. : 
Furius  piter  didicit,  Furius  learned  WHEN  HE  WAS  A  BOY  or  AS  A  BOY.   Cic. 

Junius  aedem  dictator  dcdicavit,  Juniitt  dedicated  th*  temple  WHEN  DICTATOR, 
Liv. 

4.  By  SYNESIS* — a  CONSTRUCTION  ACCORDING  TO  SENSE: 

»  See  368, 1,  foot-note. 

*  ITostis  agrees  with  ego.  Implied  In  volul, '  I  wished ' ;  se«  358.  foot-not* 
'  This  construction  is  sometimes  called  Adverbial  Apposition. 

*  See  Fignre*  <tf  Kprtrh,  036,  IV..  4. 


186  GENERAL    VIEW  OF  CASES. 

1)  Possessives  admit  a  Genitive  in  apposition  with  the  Genitive  of  the  pro- 
noun implied  in  them : 

Tua  ipslus  *  amlcitia,  your  OWN  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  sollus  peccfttum, 
my  fault  ALONE.  Cic.  Nomen  raeum  absentis,  my  name  IN  MY  ABSENCE.  Cic, 

2)  Locatives  admit  as  an  Appositive  a  Locative  Ablative  (411,  435),  with 
or  without  a  preposition : 

Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  opportunaf  they  halted  at  Alba,  A  CONVENIENT 
CITY.  Cic.  Corinthl,  Achaiae  urbe,  at  Corinth,  A  CITY  of  Achaia.  Tac. 

5.  CLAUSES. — A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  clause, 
or  a  clause  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun : 

Nos,  id3  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ougM. 
Cic.  Omnes  interflcl  jussit,  munimentum*  ad  praesens,  he  ordered  them  all 
to  be  put  to  death,  A  MEANS  OF  PROTECTION  for  tJte  present.  Tac.  For  clauses 
in  apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns,  see  499,  3 ;  5O1,  III. 

364.  PARTITIVK  APPOSITION. — The  parts  may  be  in  apposition 
with  the  whole,  or  the  whole  in  apposition  with  the  parts : 

Duo  reges,  ille  bello,  hie  pace,  clvitatem  auxerunt,  two  kings  advanced  tht 
state,  THE  FOBMER  by  war,  the  LATTER  by  peace.  Liv.  Ptolemaeus  et  Cleopatra, 
reges*  Aegypti,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  RULERS  of  Egypt.  Liv. 

SECTION    II. 

GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CASES. 

365.  Cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  be  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows : 

I.  Nominative,  Case  of  the  Subject. 

II.  Vocative,  Case  of  Address. 

III.  Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object. 

IV.  Dative,  Case  of  Indirect  Object. 

V.   Genitive,  Case  of  Adjective  Relations. 

VI.  Ablative,  Case  of  Adverbial  Relations.5 

1  Ipgiu*  agrees  with  till  (of  you)  involved  in  tua ;  solim  and  absentis,  with  met 
involved  in  meum.  The  Genitive  of  ipst,  solus,  ftnus,  and  omnis  is  often  thus  used. 

*  As  a  Locative  Ablative  is  a  genuine  Locative  in  sense,  there  is  no  special  irregii- 
larity  here,  and  in  urbe  opportftnd  may  be  explained  as  a  separate  modifier  of  th«  verb: 
'  They  halted  at  Alba,  at  a  convenient  city.''   Thus  explained,  it  is  not  an  appositi  ve  at  all. 

3  Id  quod  debet,  lit.,  THAT  which  it  oicet.  Id  and  munlmentum  are  in  apposition 
respectively  with  nos  delectat  and  omnet  inter/id,  and  are  best  explained  as  Accusatives. 
A  Nominative  apparently  in  apposition  with  a  clause  is  generally  best  explained  either  as 
sn  appositive  to  some  Nominative,  or  as  the  subject  of  a  separate  clause. 

*  In  the  first  example,  ille  and  file,  the  parts,  are  in  apposition  with  reges,  the  whole ; 
but  in  the  second  example,  regix,  the  whole,  is  in  apposition  with  the  parts,  Ptoleitiaeux 
and  Cleopatra. 

«  This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought 
it  will  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 


NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE.  187 

366.  The  Nominative,  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  probably  retained  with  very  slight  modifications  their  original 
force  as  developed  in  the  mother  tongue  from  which  the  Latin  was 
derived.  * 

367.  The  Ablative  combines  within  itself  the  separate  offices 
of  three  cases  which  were  originally  distinct :  * 

1.  The  Ablative  proper,  denoting  the  relation  FROM — the  place 
FROM  which. 

2.  The  Locative,  denoting  the  relation  IN,  AT — the  place  IN  or  AT 
which. 

3.  The  Instrumental,  denoting  the  relation  WITH,  BY — the  instru- 
ment or  means  WITH  or  BY  which. 

SECTION    III. 

NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 

I.  NOMINATIVE. 
RULE  EEL— Subject  Nominative. 

368.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive:1 

Servian  regnavit,  SERVIUS  reigned.  Liv.  Patent  portae,  THE  GATES  are 
open.  Cic.  Rex  vlcit,  THE  KINO  conquered.  Liv.  Ego  rgges  ejecl,  vos 
tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  YOU  introduce  tyrante.  Cic. 

1.  The  subject  is  always  a  substantive,  a  pronoun,  or  some  word  or 
clause  used  substantively ; 4  see  examples  under  the  rule. 

2.  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  expressed  or  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb  :  * 

.  '  That  is,  in  the  primitive  Indo-European  tongue,  from  which  have  been  derived, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  not  only  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  but  also  the  English, 
French,  German,  and  indeed  nearly  all  the  languages  of  modern  Europe.  Upon  tin-  gen- 
eral subject  of  Ca*ex,  their  original  formation  and  meaning,  see  Bopp.  I.,  pp.  242-519; 
Merguet,  pp.  17-117;  Penka,  Hubschmann,  Holzweicslg,  Delbruck,  and,  among  the  earlier 
writers,  Hartung, '  Ueber  die  Casus,'  etc.,  and  Kumpel,  '  Casuslehre.' 

J  See  Delbruck,  '  Ablativ,  Localis.  Instrumentalist 

'  For  the  Sulyect  of  the  Infinitive,  see  536.  For  the  Agreement  of  the  verb  with 
its  subject,  see  46O. 

4  For  clauses  used  snbstantively,  see  54O. 

6  8ee  247.  Thus  monefi  means  /{not  you,  he,  or  we,  but  /)  instruct.  Indeed, 
every  verb  contains  a  pronominal  subject  in  itself,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a  separate  subject  only  when  it  would  otherwise  be  doubtful  to  whom  the  implied  pro 
iioun  refers.  Thus  rfgnilrit,  'he  reigned.'  to  complete  of  itself,  if  the  context  shows  to 


188  VOCATIVE. 

Discipulos  moneo l  ut  studia  amen/,  I  instruct  pupils  to  love  (that  THBT 
may  love)  their  studies.  Quint.  Non  scholae,  sed  vltae  discb»««,  WE  learn 
not  for  the  school,  but  for  life.  Sen. 

NOTE.— A  separate  pronominal  subject  may,  however,  be  added  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, emphasis,  or  contrast,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  est  or  sunt : 

Ecce  tuae  litterae,  lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sententiae,  there  are 
/Bunt)  so  many  opinions.  Ter.  Consul  profectus  (est),  the  consul  set  out.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — The  verb  facto  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses: 

Melius  M,  quam  vos,  these  have  done  better  than  you.  Cic.  Eecte  ille,  he  does 
rightly.  Cic.  Cotta  finem,  Cotta  closed,  lit.,  made  an  end.  Cic.  So  also  in  Livy 
after  nihil  aliud  (amplius,  minus,  etc.)  quam, '  nothing  other  (more,  less,  etc.)  than '  = 
•merely';  nihil  praeterquam,  'nothing  except' = 'merely ':  Nihil  aliud  quam  stete- 
runt,  they  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than).  Liv. 

NOTE  2. — Certain  forms  of  expression  often  dispense  with  the  verb : 

Quid,  what?  quid  enim,  what  indeed?  quid  ergo,  what  then?  quid  quod,  what  of 
the  fact  that?  quid  plura,  why  more,  or  why  shall  I  say  more?  nf  plura,  not  to  Bay 
more;  ne  multa,  not  to  say  much;  quid  hoc  ad  me,  what  is  this  to  me?  nihil  ad  rem, 
nothing  to  the  subject. 

NOTB  3. — For  the  Predicate  Nominative,  see  362. 

NOTE  4.— For  the  Nominative  as  an  Appositive,  see  363. 

NOTB  5. — For  the  Nominative  in  Exclamations,  see  381,  note  3. 

II.  VOCATIVE. 
RULE  IV.— Case  of  Address. 

369.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  : 

Perge,  Laeli,  proceed,  LAELICS.  Cic.  Quid  est,  Catilina,  why  is  it,  CATI- 
LINE ?  Cic.  Tuum  est,  Servl,  regnum,  the  kingdom  is  yours,  SERVIUS.  Liv 
0  dil  immortalSs,  0  immortal  GODS.  Cic. 

1.  An  Interjection  may  or  may  not  accompany  the  Vocative. 

2.  In  poetry,  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the  Nominative  in  apposition  with 
the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect  the  Vocative : 

Audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  PEOPLE.  Liv. 

3.  Conversely,  the  Vocative  by  attraction  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where 
we  should  expect  the  Nominative : 

Qnibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  ea-spectute  venls,  from  what  shores,  Hector,  do  you  AKX- 
IOUSLT  AWAITED  come  ?  Verg.  Made  nova  virtute,  puer,  a  blessing  on  your  new 
valor,  boy  (lit.,  be  ENLARGED  by;  supply  estti).  Verg. 

whom  the  pronoun  he  refers ;  if  not,  the  noun  must  be  added  :  Servius  regnavit,  lit.,  he, 
Servius,  reigned,  or  Servius,  he  reigned.    In  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule,  e go  and 
vf>s,  though  already  implied  in  the  form  of  the  verb,  are  expressed  for  emphasis.     In 
impersonal  verbs  the  subject '  it.'  in  English,  is  implied  in  the  personal  ending  t. 
1  See  preceding  foot-note. 


ACCUSATIVE.  189 

SECTION    IV. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

870.  The  Accusative  is  used ' — 
I.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action; 
II.  In  an  Adverbial  Sense — with  or  without  Prepositions; 
III.  In  Exclamations — with  or  without  Interjections. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Predicate  Accusative,  see  362  and  373, 1. 

NOT*  2. — For  the  Accusative  in  Apposition,  see  363. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  433. 

NOTB  4.— For  the  Accusative  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive,  see  536. 

I.  ACCUSATIVE  AS  DIRECT  OBJECT. 
RULE  V.— Direct  Object. 

371.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Accusative : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  THE  WORLD.  Cic.  Llbera 
ran  puhlicam,  free  THE  REPUBLIC.  Cic.  PopulT  RomanI  salutem  dSfendite, 
defend  THE  SAFETY  of  tlie  Roman  people.  Cic. 

I.  The  DIRECT  OBJECT  may  be — 

1.  An  External  Object,  the  person  or  thing  on  which  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  directly  exerted,  as  salutem  above. 

2.  An  Internal  Object ;  \.  e.,  one  already  contained  or  implied  in  the 
action  itself.     This  embraces  two  varieties  : 

1)  In  a  STRICT  SENSE,  the  Cognate  Accusative,  an  object  having  a  mean- 
ing cognate  or  kindred  to  that  of  the  verb : 

Servitutem  servlre,a  to  terve in  bondage  (lit.,  to  serve  A  SEIWTUDE).   Ter. 

2)  In  a  FREER  SENSE,  the  Accusative  of  Effect,  the  object  produced  by 
the  action : 

Librum  scrlbere,  to  write  A  BOOK.   Cio. 

NOTE. — Participles  in  dux,  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  and  in  Plautus  a 
few  verbal  nouns,  occur  with  the  accusative : 

Vltabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibl  hanc  curatiost 
(curatio  est) '  rem  =  cQr  hanc  rcm  curas,  irhat  care  have  you  of  this?  Plaut. 

1  The  Accusative  is  probably  the  oldest  of  all  the  oblique  cases  known  to  our  family 
of  languages,  and  was  therefore  originally  the  sole  modifier  of  the  verb,  expressing  in  a 
vague  and  general  way  several  relations  now  recognized  as  distinct.  This  theory  «c- 
connts  for  the  great  variety  of  constructions  In  which  the  Accusative  Is  used  in  Latin. 
See  Ourtius,  'Zur  Chronologic,'  pp.  71-74;  Holzwelsslg,  pp.  84-3S. 

s  The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  Idea  of  xerTitfttem,  '  servitude,'  '  service,'  is  00^ 
tained  In  .the  verb  servtre,  '  to  serve,'  '  to  be  a  slave  or  servant.1 

3  8e«  27.  note. 


190  ACCUSATIVE. 

II.  The  COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE  is  generally — (1)  a  noun  with  an  adjective 
or  other  modifier,  or  (2)  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.     It  is  used  quite 
freely  both  with  transitive  and  with  intransitive  verbs,  and  sometimes  even 
with  verbs  in  the  passive  voice : 

Earn  vitam  vlvere,  to  live  that  LIFE.  Cic.  Mlrurn  soinniare  somnium,  fa 
dream  a  wonderful  DREAM.  Plaut.  Eadem  peccat,  he  makes  THE  SAME  MIS 
TAKES.'  Cic.  Hoc  studet  unum,  he  studies  this  ONE  THING  (this  one  study). 
Hor.  Perfidum  rldens  Venus,  Venus  smiling  A  PERFIDIOUS  SMILE.  Hor.  Id 
assentior,  /  assent  to  THIS  (I  give  THIS  assent).  Cic.  Idem  gloriarl,  to  make 
THE  SAME  BOAST.  Cic.  Quid  possunt,  HOW  powerful  are  they,  or  WHAT  power 
hace  they  ?  Caes.  Ea  monemur,  we  are  admonished  OF  THESE  THINGS.*  Cic. 
Mhil  moti  sunt,  they  were  NOT  AT  ALL  moved.  Liv. 

NOTE. — Here  may  be  mentioned  the  following  kindred  constructions : 

Vox  hominem  souat,  the  voice  sounds  HUMAN.  Verg.    Saltare  Cyclopa,  to  dance 

THE  CYCLOPS.  Hor.    Longam  viam  ire,  to  go  A  long  WAY.  Verg.    Bellum  pugniire,  to 

fight  A  BATTLE.  Verg. 

III.  SPECIAL  VERBS. — Many  verbs  of  FEELING  or  EMOTION,  of  TASTE  and 
SMELL,  admit  the  Accusative : 

Honores  desperat,  he  despairs  of  HONORS.  Cic.  Haec  gemebant,  they  wert 
sighing  over  THESE  THINGS.  Cic.  Detrimenta  rldet,  he  laughs  at  LOSSES.  Hor. 
O let  unguenta,  he  has  the  odor  of  PERFUMES.  Ten  OratiO  redolet  antlquitdt&n, 
the  oration  smacks  of  ANTIQUITY.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Such  verbs  are:  desptro,  to  despair  of;  doled,  to  grieve  for;  geme,  to  sigh 
over;  horreO,  to  shudder  at;  lacrimO,  to  weep  over;  maereo,  to  mourn  over;  miror, 
to  wonder  at;  rldef),  to  laugh  at;  sitio,  to  thirst  for,  etc.;  oleo,  to  have  the  odor  of; 
sapid,  to  savor  of,  whether  used  literally  or  figuratively.3 

NOTE  2.— Many  verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  sometimes  transitive  and  some- 
times Intransitive;  see  auged,  dftrd,  incipio,  laaef),  rtiO,  suppeditd,  turbo,  etc.,  in  the 
Dictionary. 

NOTE  3. — Many  verbs  which  are  usually  rendered  by  transitive  verbs  In  English 
are  intransitive  in  Latin,  and  thus  admit  only  an  indirect  object  or  some  special  con 
struction ;  see  385. 

NOTE  4. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  often  omitted,  when  it  can  be  easily  sup 
plied  :  moved  =  moved  me,  '  I  move  (myself) ' ;  vertit  =  vertit  se, '  he  turns  (himself) ' : 

Castris  non  movit,  he  did  not  mote  from  his  camp.  Liv.  Jam  verterat  fortuna. 
fortune  had  already  changed.  Liv. 

NOTE  5. — For  the  Passive  Construction,  see  464. 

IV.  An  INFINITIVE  or  a  CLAUSE  may  be  used  as  Direct  Object : 

Imper&re  cupiunt,  they  desire  TO  RULE.   Just.     Opto  ut  id  audidtie,  I  deslri 

THAT  TOU  MAT  HEAR  THIS.  Cic. 

1  Peccat,  'be  makes  a  mistake1;  idem,  peccat,  'he  makes  the  same  mistake.1  where 
idem  represents  idem  pec&ltum. 

*  Literally,  ict  are  admonished  THESE  THIHOS,  i.  e.,  these  admonitions. 

'  Observe  that  with  the  Accusative  despero  means  not '  to  despair,1  but '  to  despair 
of.1  and  is  accordingly  transitive;  doled,  not  'to  grieve,1  but  'to  grieve  for,1  etc.  With 
tome  of  the  verbs  here  given  the  object  is  properly  a  Cognate  Accusative. 


ACCUSATIVE.  191 

372.  Many  COMPOUNDS  of  intransitive  verbs  with  prepositions, 
especially  compounds  of  verbs  of  motion  with  circum,  yer,  praeter, 
trans,  and  super,  take  the  Accusative  : 

Murmur  contionem  pervasit,  a  murmur  went  through  THE  ASSEMBLY.  Liv. 
Rhenum  transierunt,  they  crossed  (went  across)  THE  RHINE.  Caes.  Circum- 
stant  sendtum,  they  stand  around  THE  SENATE.  Cic.  Hereditdtem  oblre,  to 
enter  upon  THE  INHERITANCE.  Cic.  Eas  ndtiones  adlre,  to  go  to  those  NATIONS. 
Caes.  Undam  innatare,  to  float  upon  THE  WAVE.  Verg.  Tela  exlre,1  to  avoid 
THE  WEAPONS.  Verg.  Gallos  praecedunt,  they  surpass  THE  GAULS.  Caes. 

RULE  VI.— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

373,  Verbs  of  MAKING,  CHOOSING,  CALLING,  REGARDING, 
SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
person  or  thing : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fScfirunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  COMMANDER. 
Nep.  Ancum  regem  populus  creavit,  the  people  elected  Ancus  KING.  Liv. 
Suramum  consilium  appellarunt  Sendtum,  they  called  their  highest  council 
SENATE.  Cic.  S6  praestitit  prdpugnatorem  llbertatis,  he  showed  himself 
THE  CHAMPION  of  liberty.  Cic.  Flaccum  habuit  collegam,  he  had  Flaccm  AS 
COLLEAGUE.  Nep.  Socrates  totius  mundi  se  clvem  arbitrabatur,  Socrates 
considered  himself  A  CITIZEN  of  the  whole  world.  Cic. 

1.  PREDICATE  ACCUSATIVE. — One  of  the  two  Accusatives  is  the  Direct  Object, 
and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.     The  latter  may  be  called  a 
Predicate  Accusative  ;  see  362. 

NOTE  1. — ffabeo,  'to  have,1  admits  two  Accusatives,  but  when  it  means  'to  regard.1 
it  usually  takes,  instead  of  the  Predicate  Accusative,  the  Dative  of  the  object  for  which 
(384),  the  Ablative  with  in  or  pro,  or  the  Genitive  with  loa'i,  numero  or  in  numero : 
liidibrio  habere,  'to  regard  as  an  object  of  ridicule';  j>ri'i  haste  liabfre,  in  hostibn* 
fiabfre,  locf>  hostium  habfre,  nnmerii  or  in  numero  hostium  habfrt,  'to  regard  as  an 
enemy.'  These  constructions  also  occur  with  other  verbs  meaning  to  regard  : 

Ea  honf/rl  habent,  they  regard  thetse  things  AB  AN  HONOR.  Sail.  Ilium  pro  fionte 
habcre,  to  regard  him  AD  AN  ENEMY.  Caes.  Jam  pro  factfi  habere,  to  regard  it  AB 
already  DONB.  do.  In  hostium  numero  habuit,  fie  regarded  them  AS  ENEMIES  (lit.,  in 
tli?  number  of,  etc.V  Caes.  Mu  pro  dfridiculo  putat,  ht  regards  me  AS  AN  OBJECT  o^ 

KlUIrl-]  K.     TlT. 

NOTK  -2. -The  f'rerficate  Accusative  Is  sometimes  an  adjective: 
Homines  caecfw  reddit  avaritia,  avarice  renders  men  BLIND.  Cic.    Templa  deoruui 
mi  Hi-tit  habebat,  he  regarded  the  temple*  of  the  gods  AS  SACRED.   Nep. 

2.  In  the  PASSIVE  these  verbs  take  two  Nominatives — a  Subject  and  a  Predi- 
cate— corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the  Active  : 

Ssrvius  rfx  est  declaratus,  Sermus  wa«  declared  KINO.  Liv.    S«e  also  362,  2. 


1  Observe  that  an  intranxitire  verb  may  become  transitive  by  being  compounded 
with  »  preupsitioD  wbich  does  not  take  the  Accusative. 


192  ACCUSATIVE. 

RULE  VII.    Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Thing. 

374.  Some  verbs  of  ASKING,  DEMANDING,  TEACHING,  and 
CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person 
and  the  other  of  the  thmg : 

Me"  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Philosophia  n5s 
res  omnes  docuit,  philosophy  has  taught  us  all  THINGS.  Cic.  Auxilia  rggem 
Orabant,  they  asked  AUXILIARIES  from  the  king.  Liv.  Pacem  te  poscimus. 
toe  demand  PEACE  of  you.  Verg.  Non  tS  celavl  serm&nem,  I  did  not  conceal 
from  you  THE  CONVERSATION.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  PASSIVE  the  PERSON  becomes  the  subject,  and  the  Accusative  of 
the  thing  is  retained  : 

MS  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asktd  me  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Ego  sententiam  ro- 
gStus  sum,  /  was  asked  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Artes  edoctus  fuerat,  he  had  been 
taught  THE  ARTS.  Liv. 

2.  Two  ACCUSATIVES  are  generally  used  with  ceti>,  doceO,  edoceo  ;  often  with 
rogo,  posed,  reposed,-  sometimes  with  dedoceo,  exposed,  flagitd,  oro,  etc.,  can* 
sul6,  interrogd,  percontor  ;  rarely  with  moned,  admoned,  and  postulo. 

NOTE  1. — Celd,  'to  conceal,'  takes — (1)  in  the  Active  generally  two  Accusatives,  at> 
under  the  rule,  but  sometimes  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the 
thing  with  de  ;  (2)  in  the  Passive,  the  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  the  Ablative 
with  de  : 

Me  de  hoc  librfi  celavit,  he  kept  me  ignorant  OF  this  BOOK.  Cic.  Id  cGlari,  to  be 
kept  ignorant  OP  THIS.  Nep.  Celari  de  const/id,  to  be  kept  ignorant  OF  THE  PLAN. 
Cic. 

NOTB  2. — DoceO  and  edoceo  generally  follow  the  rule,1  but  sometimes  they  take  the 
Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  di-?  and  some- 
times the  Accusative  *  of  the  person  with  the  Jujitttfive  or  a  subjunctive  Clause: 

De  sna  re  me  docet,  he  informs  me  IN  KKGABD  TO  his  CASE.  Cic.  Litteris  Graecis 
doctus,  instructed  IN  Greek  MTEBATUBE.  Sail.  Socratem  Jidibus 3  docuit,  he  taught 
Socrates  (with)  THE  I.YKE.  Cic.  Te  sapere  docet,  he  teachex  you  TO  BK  WISE.  Cic. 

NOTE  3. — Most  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding  sometimes  take  two  Accusatives, 
but  verbs  of  asking,  questioning,  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person  *  and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing4  with  de,  and  verbs  of  imploring,  demanding,  generally  the 
Accusative  of  the  thing  *  and  the  Ablative  of  the  person  *  with  a  or  ab  : 

Te  his  de  rebus  interrogO,  /  ask  you  IN  REGAED  TO  these  THINGS.  Cic.  VIctoriam 
ab  dils  exposcere,  to  implore  victory  FBOM  THE  GODS.  Caes.  Id  ab  ed  flagitare,  to  de- 
mand this  FROM  HIM.  Caes. 

1  Other  verbs  of  teaching— erudio,  instituQ,  inform^,  instruo,  etc.— generally  take 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  a  preposition,  as  in  or  de;  see  Dictionary, 
a  DoceO,  in  the  sense  of  inform,  takes  de  with  the  Ablative. 

*  Th«  Accusative  may  be  omitted.    "Wtthjldibus  supply  canere. 

*  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and  a  clause  often  takes 
the  place  of  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  thing.    For  examples  and  for  special  con- 
structions, see.  in  the  Dictionary,  coneulo,  interrogd,  rogo;  al&ojfagitii,  6rf>,  pogco.  *& 
twco,  anf1  reposed. 


ACCUSATIVE.  193 

NOTE  4.  —  Pctfl  and  postuld  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  thing1  and  the 
Ablative  of  the  person  with  <i  or  ab;  quaerf),  the  Accusative  of  the  thing1  and  the 

-  of  the  person  with  «  or  ea;,  «,  a&,  or  <W  : 
Pacem  ab  Romania  petit-rant,  they  asked  peace  FBOM  THE  ROMANS.  Caes.    Aliquid 
amicis  postulare,  to  demand  something  FROM  FKIENDS.  Cic.    Quaerit  ex  solo  ea,  etc  , 
OF  HIM  IN  PRIVATE  (from  him  alone)  those  questions,  etc.  Caes. 


375.  A  NEUTER  PRONOUN  or  ADJECTIVE  as  a  Cognate'1  Accusative  oc 
imrs  in  connection  with  a  Direct  Object  with  many  verbs  which  do  not 
otherwise  take  two  Accusatives: 

Hoc  te  hortor,  /  exhort  you  to  THIS,  7  give  you  THIS  exhortation.  Cic.  Ea  * 
laonemur,  ive  are  admonished  of  THESE  THINGS.  Cic.  So  with  velle,  Caes.,  B. 
G.  I.,  34. 

376.  A  few  COMPOUNDS  of  trans,  circum,  and  ad  admit  two  Accusa- 
tives, dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition  : 

Iberum  copias  trajecit,  he  led  his  forces  across  THE  EBRO.  Liv.  Animum 
kdverti  columtttam,  I  noticed  (turned  my  mind  to)  A  SHALL  COLUMN.  Cic. 

NOTE.—  In  the  Passive  these  compounds  and  some  others  admit  an  Accusative  de- 
pending upon  the  preposition  : 

Praetervehor  mtla  Pantagiae,  I  am  carried  by  THE  MOUTH  of  the  Pantagias.  Yerg. 
Z^CKW  sum  praetervectus,  /  have  been  carried  by  THE  PLACE.  Cic. 

377.  In  POETRY,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of  clothing,  unclothing  —  induo, 
fxuo,  cingo,  accingo,  indued,  etc.  —  are  sometimes  used  reflexively  in  the  Pas- 
sive, like  the  Greek  Middle,  and  thus  admit  an  Accusative  : 

Galeam  induitur,  he  puts  on  HIS  HELMET.   Verg.     Inutile  ferrum  cingitur, 

he  girds  on  HIS  -useless  SWORD.   Verg.     Virginfis  longam  indutae  vestem,  maid- 

ens attired  in  long  ROBES.    Liv. 

NOTE.—  A  few  other  verbs  sometimes  admit  a  similar  construction  In  the  poets: 
Antiquum  saturuta  dolorem,  having  satisft'ed  her  ofd  RF.SENTMENT.  Verg.    Suspend 

loculiit  lacerto,  icith  SATCUELS  hung  upon  tlie  arm  (having  hung,  etc.).  Hor.     Pascuntur 

lilm'is,  they  brwcse  on  THE  FORESTS.  Verg. 

II.  ACCUSATIVE  IN  AN  ADVERBIAL  SENSE. 
RULE  VIII.—  Accusative  of  Specification. 

378.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  define  its  application  :  4 

1  The  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and,  instead  of  the  Accusative  of  the 
.'bing,  a  clause  is  often  used.  With  postuln  and  qi/aerf)  the  Ablative  with  df  occurs. 
For  examples  and  for  other  special  constructions,  see  Dictionary. 

3  See  371.  II. 

3  As  a  rare  exception,  moneo  admits  a  noun  as  the  Accusative  of  the  thing;  see 
Plaut.,  Stich..  1,  2,  1. 

4  The  Accusative  of  Specification  is  closely  related  to  the  foynatf  Accusative  and  to 
the  Poetic  Accusative  after  Passive  verbs  used  reflexively,  both  of  which  readily  paei 
into  an  adverbial  construction.     Tout  capita  ID  capita  vfld>nnr  and  (taif-am  in  galeam 

14 


194  ACCUSATIVE. 

Capita  vSlamur,  we  have  OUR  HEADS  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  ODR  HEADS,  or 
have  veiled  OUR  HEADS).  Verg.  Nube  humeros  araictus,  with  HIS  SHOULDERS 
enveloped  in  a  cloud.  Hor.  Miles  fractus  membra  labore,  the  soldier  with 
LIMBS  shattered  with  labor  (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Hor.  Aeneas  6s  deo 
similis,  Aeneas  like  a  god  in  APPEARANCE.  Verg. 

1.  In  a  strict  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Specification  generally  specifies  the 
,>art  to  which  the  action  or  quality  particularly  belongs.     In  this  sense,  it  is 
mostly  poetic,  but  occurs  also  in  prose.     See  Ablative  of  Specification,  424. 

2.  In  a  freer  sense,  this  Accusative  includes  the  adverbial  use  of  partem, 
vicem,  nihil,  of  id  and  genus  in  id  temporis,  id  aetatis  (at  this  time,  age),  id 
genus,1  omne  genus,  quod  genus  (for  e/us  generis,  etc.\  etc.  ;  also  of  secus,  res, 
and  of  many  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  —  hoc,  illud,  id,  quid  (454,  2), 
multum,  summum,  cetera,  riliqua,  etc.     In  this  sense,  it  is  common  in  prose  : 

Maximum  partem  lacte  vlvunt,  they  live  mostly  (as  to  the  largest  PART) 
upon  milk.  Caes.  Locus  id  temporis  vacuus  erat,  the  place  was  AT  THIS  time 
vacant,  Cic.  Aliquid  id  genus  •  scrlbere,  to  write  something  OF  this  KIND. 
Oic.  Alias  res  est  improbus,  IN  other  THINGS  (as  to  the  rest)  he  is  unprinci- 
pled. Plaut.  Quaerit,  quid  possint,  he  inquires  now  powerful  they  are.  Caes. 
vfenlstl,  WHY  have  you  come?  Plaut. 


RULE  IX.    Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

379.  DUKATION  OF  TIME  and  EXTENT  OF  SPACE  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  Accusative  : 

Romulus  septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Romulus  reigned  thirty-seven 
YEARS.  Liv.  Cyrus  quadraginta  annos  natus  regnare  coepit,  Cyrus  began 
to  reign  (when)  forty  YEARS  old  (having  been  born  forty  YEARS).  Cic.  Quln- 
que  mllia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  MILES.  Cic.  Pedes  octOginta 
dlstare,  to  be  eighty  FEET  distant.  Caes.  Nix  quattuor  pcdcs  alta,  saow  four 
FEET  deep.  Liv.  But  — 

1.  DURATION  OF  TIME  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative,  or  by  the 
Accusative  with  a  preposition  : 

Pugnatum  est  horift  qulnque,  the  battle  was  fought  five  HOURS.  Caes.  J'et 
annos  vlgintl  certatum  est,  the  war  was  iraged  FOR  twenty  YEARS.  Liv. 

2.  DISTANCE  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative: 

MiUbufi  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  castrls  consedit,  he  encamped  AT  THE  DIS- 
TANCE or  sic  MILES/TOW  Caesar  's  camp.  Caes. 

NOTE.—  Ab  used  adverbially,  meaning  off,  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative  : 
Ab  rnllibus  passuum  duobus  castra  posuerunt,  they  pitched  their  camp  two  mi/ex 
OFF.  Caes. 

indwitur  are  similar  constructions,  while  quid  in  quaerit  quid  poxxint  may  be  explained 
either  as  a  Cognate  Accusative  (371,  I.,  2)  or  as  an  Adverbial  Accusative. 

1  Some  grammarians  treat  genun  in  all  such  cases  as  an  Appositive:  aliyuM,  id 
genus,  something,  this  kind;  see  Draeger,  I.,  p.  2. 


ACCUSATIVE.  195 

RULE  X.    Accusative  of  Limit. 

380.  The  PLACE  TO  WHICH  is  designated  by  the  Accusa- 
tive : ' 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — ad  or  in  : 

LegiOnSs  ad  urbem  adducit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  TO  or  TOWARD  THI 
CITY.  Cic.  Ad  me  scribunt,  they  are  writing  TO  ME.  Cic.  In  Asiam  redit, 
he  return*  INTO  ASIA.  Nep.  C6nfugit  in  dram,  he  fed  TO  THE  ALTAR.  Nep. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition  : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  TO  ROME.  Liv.  Plato  Ta- 
rentum  vgnit,  Plato  came  TO  TARENTUM.  Cic.  Fugit  Tarquinios,  he  fled  TO 
TARQI/INII.  Cic.  But — 

NOTE. — Verb§  meaning  to  collect,  to  come  together,  etc. — convenio,  cogo,  convocO, 
etc. — are  usually  treated  as  verbs  of  motion,  and  thus  take  the  Accusative,  generally  with 
a  preposition ;  but  verbs  meaning  to  place — loco,  collocO,  p<~mO,  etc. — are  usually  treated 
•s  verbs  of  rest,  and  thus  take  the  Ablative  (435),  generally  with  a  preposition : 

I'nuin  in  locum  convenire,  to  meet  IN  one  PLACE.  Caes.  Copias  in  iinuin  loeum 
cogere,  to  collect  forces  IN  one  PLACE.  Caes.  In  alterius  manu  vitain  ponere,  tc 
place  one's  life  is  THK  HAND  of  another.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  the  Accusative  with  ad  occurs — (1)  to  denote 
to,  toward,  in  the  direction  of,  into  the  vicinity  of,  and  (2)  in  contrast  with 
4  or  06.- 

Trfis  sunt  viae  ad  Mutinam,  there  are  three  roads  TO  MUTINA.  Cic.  Ad 
Zamam  pervenit,  "he  came  TO  THE  VICINITY  OF  ZAMA.  Sail.  A  Dianio  ad 
Sinopen,  from  Dianium  TO  SINOPE.  Cic. 

2.  Like  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  are  used — 

1)  The  Accusatives  domum,  domos,  rus: 

Sclpifi  domum  reductus  est,  Scipio  was  conducted  HOVE.  Cic.  DOIIMX  ab 
ductl,  led  TO  THEIR  HOMES.  Liv.  Rus  fcvolare,  to  hasten  INTO  THK  COUNTRY. 
Cic.  Domum  rediti6,  a  return  HOME.  Caes. 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  islands  and  peninsulas : 
Latona  confugit  Delum,  Latona  fled  TO  DKLOS.   Cic.     Pervenit  Chereont- 

emu,  he  went  TO  THE  CHERSONESUS.    Nep. 

3)  Rarely  a  few  other  Accusatives,  as  exsequias,  Inftias,  etc. :  * 
Ille  ivfitids  ibit,  he  will  deny  (will  proceed  TO  A  DENIAL).   Ten 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted   before  names  of  countries, 
and,  in  the  poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns : 

J  Originally  the  place  to  whicJi  was  uniformly  designated  by  the  Accusative  without 
ft  preposition.  Names  of  towns  have  retained  the  original  construction,  while  most  otbfi/ 
names  of  places  have  assumed  a  preposition. 

a  See  also  the  Supine  in  urn,  546. 


196  DATIVE. 

Aegyptwm,  profugit,  he  fled  TO  EGYPT.  Cic.  Italiam  venit,  he  came  TO 
ITALY.  Verg.  Ibimus  Afros,  wt  shall  go  TO  THE  AFRICANS.  Verg.  Lavinia 
venit  lltora,  he  came  to  the  La.vin.ian  SHORES.  Verg. 

4.  A  POETICAL  DATIVE  occurs  for  the  Accusative,  with  or  without  a 
preposition : 

It  clamor  caelo  (for  ad  caelum),  the  shout  ascends  TO  HEAVEN.  Verg.  Faci- 
tis  descSnsus  Averno,  easy  ^s  the  descent  TO  HADES.  Verg.  See  385,  4. 

III.  ACCUSATIVE  IN  EXCLAMATIONS. 
RULE  XI. — Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  inter- 
jection, may  be  used  in  exclamations : 

Heu  me  miserurn,  AH  ME  unhappy  !  Cic.  Me  miserum,  ME  miserable  ! ' 
Cic.  6  fallacem  spem,  0  deceptive  HOPE!  Cic.  Me  caecum,  blind  that 
I  am !  Cic.  Pro  deorum  fidem,  IN  THE  NAME  of  the  gods  I  Cic.  Hanc- 
cine  audaciam,  this  AUDACITY  ? s  Cic.  But — 

NOTE  1.  —An  adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  Accusative,  as  in  the 
examples. 

NOTE  2. — O,  eheu,  and  heu  are  the  interjections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ac- 
cusative, thougn  others  occur. 

NOTE  8. — Ocher  cases  also  occur  in  exclamations: 

1)  The  Vocative — when  an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended  : 

Pro  aancte  Juppiter,  O  holy  JUPITER.  Cic.     Infelix  Dido,  v/nhappy  UIDO.  Verg. 

8)  The  Nominative — when  the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a  statement: 

En  deectra,  LO  THE  RIGHT  HAND  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand)  1  Verg.  Ecce 
tu»e  Utter/i«,  LO  your  LETTER  (comes) !  Cic. 

3)  The  Datvve — to  designate  the  person  after  ei,  vae,  and  sometimes  after  tea,  en, 
iern:* 

M  mikl.  WOB  TO  ME.  Verg.  Vae  tibl,  WOE  TO  YOU.  Ter.  ffcce  ttbi,  LO  TO  Ton 
f.o  here  is  to  you  —  observe).  Cic.  En  tibl,  THIS  FOB  YOU  (lo  I  do  this  for  you).  Liv. 

SECTION    V. 

DATIVE. 

382.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object,  and 
designates  the  PERSON  TO  or  FOR  WHOM,'  or  the  THING  TO 
or  FOR  WHICH,  anything  is  o^  is  done.6 

1  See  Milton,  '  Paradise  Lost,'  IV.,  78. 

2  The  exclamation  may  of  course  be  interrogative  in  character. 
"  This  is  an  Ethical  Dative ;  see  389. 

4  The  Indirect  Object  is  generally  a  perxon.  ji-  somethinq  personified.  Unlike  the 
Direct  Object,  it  is  never  contained  in  the  action  or  produced  by  it,  but  is  in  most  in- 
itances  the  interested  recipient  of  it. 

e  Whether  this  was  ilje  original  meaning  of  the  Dative  ts  aot  Known.    Delbriic! 


DATIVE.  197 

383.  The  Dative  is  used— 

I.  With  a  large  class  of  Verbs  and  Adjectives ; 
II.  With  a  few  special  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

RULE  XII.    Dative  with  Verbs. 

384.  The  INDIRECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Dative.     It  is  used — 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  Verbs  : 

Till  servio,  /  am  devoted  TO  YOU.  Plant.  Serviunt  populo,  they  are  de- 
voted TO  THE  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Imperio  parebant,  they  were  obedient  TO  (obeyed) 
AUTHORITY.  Caes.  Tempori  cedit,  he  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Laborl  stu- 
dent, they  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  the  world 
obeys  GodJ  Cic.  Caesart  supplicSbo,  I  will  supplicate  Caesar}  Cic.  Nobls 
vita  data  est,  life  has  been  granted  to  us.  Cic.  NumitOri  deditur,  he  is 
delivered  to  Numitor.  Liv. 

II.  With   TRANSITIVE  Verbs,   in   connection   with  the 
DIRECT  OBJECT  : 

Agros/>feii  dedit,  he  gave  lands  TO  THE  COMMON  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Tibi  gra- 
tias  ago,  /  give  thanks  TO  YOU.  Cic.  Nstura  hominem  conciliat  Aomtnf, 
Nature  reconcile*  man  TO  MAN.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the  bridge 
gave  a  passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv.  Legos  elvitfitibus  suls  scrlpserunt,  thei, 
prepared  laws  for  tJieir  states.  Cic. 

1.  The  INDIRECT  OBJECT  may  be — 

1)  The  DATIVE  OF  INFLUENCE,"  designating  the  person  TO  whom  some- 
thing is  or  is  done  : 

Serviunt  populo,  they  are  derated  TO  THE  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Agros  plebi  dedit, 
he  gave  land*  TO  THE  COMMON  PEOPLE.  Cic. 

2)  The  DATIVE  OF  INTEREST,2  designating  the  person  FOR  whom  something 
is  or  is  done : 

Sibl  Megarensfis  vlcit,  he  conquered  the  Megarians  FOU  HIMSELF.   Just. 

3)  The  DATIVE  OF  PURPOSE  or  END,"  designating  the  object  or  end  FOH 
which  something  is  or  is  done : 

Keceptul  cecinit,  he  gare  the  signal  FOR  A  RETREAT.    Liv. 

thinks  that  this  case  originally  designated  the  place  or  object  toward  ichicJt  the  action 
tended.  See  Kuhn's  '  Zcitschrift,'  vol.  xvlii.,  p.  81. 

1  In  Hvbjecl  to  God  :  will  make  trujiplication  to  Caesar. 

'*  Observe  that  the  Dative  of  Influence  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  verb,  and 
IB.  in  fact,  essential  to  the  cr/m/i/efene«i>  of  the  sentence;  while  the  Dative  of  Ititfrett  and 
trfe  Dative  of  Purpose  are  merely  added  to  sentences  which  would  be  complete  w1U>ii»\ 
tin-in  Thus  Megarfnueg  vlcit  is  complete  in  itself. 


108  DATIVE. 

2.  DOUBLE  CONSTRUCTION. — A  few  verbs  admit — (1)  the  Dative  of  the 
person  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing :  alicui  rem  dondre,  '  to  present  a  thing 
to  any  one,'  or  aliquem  re  dondre,  '  to  present  any  one  with  a  thing ' : ' 

Praedam  mllitibus  donat,  he  gives  the  booty  TO  THE  SOLDIERS.  Caes.  Athe- 
nienses/r umento  donavit,  he  presented  the  Athenians  WITH  GRAIN.  Nep. 

NOTE. — This  construction  may  also  be  used  of  objects  which  are  in  a  measure  per- 
sonified, or  which  involve  persons  : 

Murum  urbl  circumdedit,  Jie  built  a  wall  around  THE  CITY.  Nep.  Deus  animum 
circumdedit  corpore,  God  has  encompassed  the  soul  WITH  A  BODY.  Clc. 

3.  To  and  for  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative.     Thus — 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction,  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  (380) : 

VenI  ad  urbem,  I  came  TO  THE  CITY.  Cic.  Delum  venimus,  we  came  TO 
DELOS.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets;  see  380,  4,  and  385,  4. 

NOTE  2. — Mitto,  'to  send,'  and  scribo,  'to  write,'  take  the  Dative,  or  the  Accusative 
with  ad,  to  denote  the  person  to  whom.  : 

Scribit  Labfeno,  he  writes  TO  LABIENUS.  Caes.  Scribes  ad  me,  you  icill  write  TO 
ME.  Cic. 

2)  For,  in  defence  of,  in  behalf  of,  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with 
pro ;  for  the  sake  of,  for  the  purpose  of,  sometimes  by  the  Accusative 
with  in  : 

Prbpatria,  mori,  to  die  FOR  ONE'S  COUNTRY.  Hor.  Dimicare  pro  libertdte, 
to  fight  FOB  LIBERTY.  Cic.  Satis  in  usum,  enough  FOR  USE.  Liv. 

4.  The  Dative  sometimes  depends,  not  upon  the  verb  alone,  but  upon 
the  Predicate  as  a  whole  : 

Tegimenta  yaleis3  mllites  facere  jubet,  he  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  cov- 
erings FOR  THEIR  HELMETS.  Caes.  Liberls  dlvites  esse  volumus,  we  wish 
to  be  rich  FOR  THE  SAKE  OF  OUR  CHILDREN.  Cic.  Quis  huic  ril  testis  est, 
who  testifies  TO  THIS  (lit.,  in  a  witness  FOR  this  THING).  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Dative  is  used  with  verbs  modified  by  satin,  bene,  end  male,  whether 
written  as  compounds  or  not : 

IU'tn  satis  facere  (also  written  satisfacere),  to  satisfy  THEM.*  Caes.  Cui  bene  dlxit 
iinquatn,  FOR  WHOM  has  he  ever  spoken  a  good  vordt  Cic.  Optimo  viri>  maledlcere, 
to  revile  a  most  excellent  MAX.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — A  Dative  is  sometimes  thus  added  to  the  predicate  when  the  English  idiom 
would  lead  us  to  expect  a  Genitive  depending  upon  a  noun  : 

In  conspectum  vi-nerat  hostibus,  *  he  had  come  in  sight  OF  THE  ENEMY  (lit.,  TO  THK 

1  This  double  construction  occurs  chiefly  with  aspergo,  cireumdo,  circumfundo. 
d<mi),  exttO,  impertio,  induo,  Inspergft,  interclud.0. 

2  Galels  is  best  explained  as  depending  upon  tegimenta  facere,  rather  than  upon 
facere  alone;  liber  is,  as  depending  upon  divides  ease  volumus,  and  rtl  upon  testis  e»t. 

3  Literally,  to  do  enough  FOB  THEM. 

«  ffostibus  does  not  depend  at  all  upon  conspectum,  but  upon  the  entire  predicate, 
in  cijntpectum  rintrut. 


DATIVE.  199 

F.NBM Y).  Cic.  Caesarl  ad  pedes  proicere,  to  cast  at  tfte  feet  OF  CAESAR  (lit.,  TO  CAESAR, 
at  thefett).  Caes.  Mihi  horror  membra  quatit,  a  shudder  shakes  my  limbt.  Verg. 
Urbl  fandamenta  jacere,  to  lay  the  foundation*  of  (for)  the  city.  Liv. 

NOTE  3.— The  Dative  is  sometimes  very  loosely  connected  with  the  predicate,  merely 
designating  the  person  with  reference  to  whom,  the  statement  is  true  : 

Tu  illl  pater  es,  you  are  a  father  TO  HIM.  Tac.  Tridu!  Her  exped'itls  erat,  it  wan 
a  journey  of  three  days  FOR  LIOIIT- ARMED  SOLDIERS.  Liv.  Est  urbe  egressls  tumu- 
lus, there  is  a  mound  as  you  go  out  of  the  city.1  Verg. 

5.  WITH  IMPERSONAL  PASSIVE. — Verbs  which  admit  only  an  Indirect 
Object  in  the  Active  are  Impersonal  in  the  Passive,  but  they  may  retain 
the  Dative : 

Hostibw  resistunt,  tfiey  resist  THE  ENEMY.  Caes.  His  sententiis  resisti- 
tur,  resistance  is  offered  TO  these  OPINIONS.  Caes.  Ne  mihl  noceant,  that  they 
may  not  injure  ME.  Cic.  Mihl  nihil  nocerl  potest,  no  injury  can  be  done  TO 
HE  (lit.,  injury  can  be  done  TO  ME  not  at  all).  Cic. 

385.  WITH  SPECIAL  VERBS. — The  Dative  of  the  In- 
direct Object  is  used  with  many  verbs  which  require  special 
mention.  Thus — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  to  benefit  or  injure,  please  or  displease, 
command  or  obey,  seme  or  resist,  and  the  like  : 

Sibl  prosunt,  tliey  benefit  THEMSELVES.  Cic.  Noc§re  alterl,  to  injure 
ANOTHER.  Cic.  Zenoril  placuit,  it  pleased  ZENO.  Cic.  Displicet  Tullo,  it 
displeases  TCTLLUS.  Liv.  Cupiditatibus  imperSre,  to  command  desires.  Cic. 
Deo  pSrere,  to  obey  God.  Cic.  Regl  servlre,  to  serve  the  king.  Cic.  Hosti- 
bus  resistere,  to  resist  tJie  enemy.  Caes. 

II.  With  verbs  signifying  to   indulge,   spa/re,  pardon,   threaten, 
believe,  persuade,  and  the  like  : 

Sibl  indulgere,  to  indulge  ONE'S  SELF.  Cic.  Vltae  parcere,  to  spare  LIFE. 
Nep.  Mihl  IgnOscere,  to  pardon  ME.  Cic.  Minitans  patriae,  threatening 
his  country.  Liv.  TriscI  amlcls,  to  be  angry  with  friends.  Cic  Mihi  credo 
believe  me.  Cic.  Us  persuadere,  to  persuade  them.  Caes. 

NOTE  1. — Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative:  dflectd,  juvfi,  laedo,  offend/), 
etc.: 

Marium  juvit,  he  helped  MarliiK.  Nep.  Non  mo  fama  delectat,  fame  does  not 
delight  me.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— fotf'ifjr,  and  cfmf'ido  with  the  Ablative,  see  425,  1,  1),  note. 

NOTE  8. — The  force  of  the  Dative  Is  often  found  01  ly  by  attending  to  the  strict  mean- 

1  Other  examples  are:  A  Tylls  euntl  loco  alto  sit!  sunt,  they  are  itituated  in  an  el«- 
vat&i  pliicf  an  you  come  (lit.,  to  rme  coming)  from  Pijlat.  Liv.  Descendentibui 
Inter  duos  liicos,  as  you  dem-end  (lit.,  to  thane  dftcemliiif/)  between  the  tiro  yro-ve-K. 
Liv.  Exsccndentibus  a«l  tetnpluin  tniiceria  erat.  there  iru»  <in  tncloxiire  an  yon  <m- 
cended  to  the  temple.  Liv.  In  iiniversum  aestiinantl  plus  penes  poditom  roboris  est. 
to  make  <i  general  entimate  (litM  to  one  making,  etc.),  there  is  more  strength  in  tlt« 
infantry.  Tap. 


200  DATIVE. 

Ing  of  the  verb :  nfibo,  'to  marry1  (strictly,  to  veil  one't  telf,  as  the  bride  for  the  bride 
groom);  medeor,  'to  cure'  (to  administer  a  remedy  to);  satisfacio,  'to  satisfy1  (to  do 
enough  for),  etc. 

1.  Some  verbs  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative,  but  with  a 
difference  of  meaning : 

Cavere  aliquem,  to  ward  of  some  one  ;  cavere  alicui,  to  care  FOR  some  one. 

COnsulere  aliquem,  to  consult,  etc. ;  alicui,  to  consult  FOR,  etc. 

Metuere,  timere  aliquem,  to  fear  ;  alicui,  to  fear  FOB. 

Prospicere,  providere  aliquid,  to  foresee  ;  alicui,  to  provide  FOR. 

Temperare,  moderari  aliquid,  to  govern,  direct ;  alicui  (of  things),  to  re- 
strain, put  a  check  UPON;  temperare  alicui  (of  persons),  to  spare:1 

Hunc  tu  caveto,  be  on  your  guard  against  THIS  ONE  (lit.,  ward  HIM  off). 
Hor.  El  cavere  volo,  I  wish  to  care  FOR  HIM  (i.  e.,  to  protect  him).  Cic.  Per- 
Jidiam  timemus,  we  fear  PERFIDY.  Cic.  Sibi  timuerant,  they  had  feared  FOR 

THEMSELVES.    CaCS. 

NOTE.—  Dare  Utterds  ad  aliquem  means  to  address  a  letter  TO  SOME  ONK  ;  but  dare 
litterds  alicui  generally  means  to  deliver  a  letter  TO  ONE  A8  A  CARRIER  or  MESSENGER: 

Litterae  mihl  ad  CatUinam  datae  sunt,  a  letter  addressed  TO  CATILINE  «>a«  deliv- 
ered TO  ME.  Cic. 

2.  A  DATIVE  rendered  from  occurs  with  a  few  verbs  of  differing,  dis- 
senting, repelling,  taking  away,  etc. : 

Differre  cuivis,  to  differ  FROM  ANT  ONE.  Nep.  Sibi  dissentlre,  to  dissent 
FROM  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Somnum  mihl  adimere,  to  take  sleep  FROM  ME.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Poetical  Dative,  see  4,  below;  and  for  the  Ablative  with  verbs  of 
Separation  or  Difference,  see  413. 

3.  A   DATIVE   rendered  with  occurs  with   misceo,  admisceo,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  with  facio  : 

Severitatem  miscfcre  comitdti,to  unite  severity  WITH  AFFABILITY.  Liv.  Quid 
huie  hominl  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  WITH  (TO)  this  MAN  ?  Cic.  See  4  below. 

4.  DATIVE  IN  POETRY. — In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose-writers,  the  Dative 
is  used  much  more  freely  than  in  classical  prose.     Thus  it  occurs  with 
more  or  less  frequency  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs : 

1)  With  verbs  denoting  Motion  or  Direction — for  the  Accusative  with  ad 
or  in : 

MultSs  demittimus  Orcf>  (for  ad  or  in.  Orcum),  we  send  many  dou-n  TO  ORCUS. 
Verg.  Caelo  (for  ad  caelum)  palmas  tetendit,  he  extended  his  hands  TOWARD  HEAVEN. 
Verg.  It  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  to  heaven.  Verg.  See  also  392,  1. 

2)  With  verbs  denoting  Separation  or  Difference* — instead  of  the  Ablative 
with  ab  or  de,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter  : 

Solstitium  pecori  (for  a  pecore)  defendite,  keep  off  the  heat  FROM  THE  FLOCK.  Verg, 
Kcurrae  distabit  amicus,  a  friend  icill  differ  FROM  A  JESTER.  Hor.  Serta  capitl  dc-- 
lapsa.  garland*  fallen  from  his  head.  Verg. 

1  Many  other  verbs  take  different  constructions  with  different  meanings;  see  cfdfi. 
?#nvenii),  cupin,  dfjicift,  dolefl,  maneo,  parcn,  peto,  solvo,  and  volo  in  the  Dictionary. 

3  Thus  with  arcefl.  alsum,  differo,  distentif).  diuideo,  ditto,  etc. ;  see  Dictionary 


DATIVE.  201 

8)  With  verbs  denoting  Union,  Comparison,  Contention,  and  the  like1— 
instead  of  the  Ablative  with  cum,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter  ; 

Miscet s  viris,  he  mingle*  WITH  THE  MEN.  Verg.  Concurrere  hosti  (for  cum  koste),  to 
meet  THE  ENEMY.  Ov.  Solus  tibi  certat,  he  alone  contend*  with  you.  Verg.  Placiton* 
puirnabis  smori,  will  you  contend  with  acceptable  love  f  Verg. 

4)  In  still  other  instances,  especially  in  expressions  of  Place  : 

Haeret  laterl  (for  in  latere)  arundo,  the  arrow  sticks  IN  HBB  BIDE.  Verg.  Ardet 
»pex  capit>,  the  helmet  gleams  UPON  HIS  HEAD.  Verg. 

386.  DATIVE  WITH  COMPOUNDS. — The  Dative  is  used 
with  many  verbs  compounded  with — 

ad,          ante,          con,  de,  in,  inter, 

ob,          post,          prae,          pro,  '        sub,          super: 

Adsum  a/mm,  /  am  present  WITH  MY  FRIENDS.  Cic.  Omnibus  antestftre, 
to  surpass  ALL.  Cic.  Terris  cohaeret,  it  cleaves  TO  THE  EARTH.  Sen.  Hoc 
Caesari  dcfuit,  this  failed  (was  wanting  TO)  CAESAR.  Caes.  VoluptatI  in- 
haerere,  to  be  connected  with  pleasure.  Cic.  Interfuit  pugnae,  he  partici- 
pated in  the  battle.  Nep.  Consilils  obstare,  to  oppose  plans.  Nep.  Llber- 
tatl  opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty.  Liv.  Populo  praesunt, 
they  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Tibi  prosunt,  they  are  profitable  to  you.  Cic. 
Sucfumbere  doloribus,  to  yield  to  sorrows.  Cic.  Superfuit  patrt,  he  sur- 
vived his  fathei;  Liv. 

1.  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and 
the  Dative : 

Sf  opposult  hostibvx,  he  opposed  HIMSELF-  TO  TDK  ENEMY.  Cic.  Capiti  subdiixerat 
onsem,  xhe  had  removed  my  sword  from  my  head.  Verg.  See  also  Libertatl  opfs 
pofitferre,  above. 

2.  COMPOUNDS  OF  OTHER  PREPOSITIONS,  especially  of  ab,  ex,  and  dram, 
sometimes  admit  the  Dative  ;  while  several  of  the  compounds  specified  undur 
the  rule  admit  the  Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition  : 3 

SM  libertutem  abjudicat,  he  deprirex  UIMBELK  (sentences  himself  to  the  loss)  of  lib- 
erty. Cic.  Milii  tiinorem  Oripc,  free  MB  from  fear  (lit.,  snatch  away  fear  KOR  MK). 
Cic.  Pugnu  assuescere,  to  be  accustomed  to  (trained  in)  buttle.  Liv.  Dicta  cum  factiK 
componere,  to  compare  words  with  deeds.  Sail. 

3.  MOTION  OK  DIRECTION. — Compounds  expressing  mere  motion  or  direc- 
tion generally  take  the  Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition : 4 

1  Thus,  with  oiipulo,  jung<\  mifu-eo,  admlncef>,  permisceo,  nectfi,  tocif),  etc. ;  oert'i, 
contendo,  factor,  pfigno.  etc. 

s  Mixcefi,  as  a  transitive  verb,  occurs  with  the  Accusative  and  Dative  even  in  classical 
prose;  see  385,  8;  also  371,  III.,  note  2. 

3  8ee  assufKCTti  angiiffacio,  acquitted,  coet),  cohaeref),  coUiido,  comiminico,  com- 
pi'ino,  concords),  cfinferi),  cfinfllgn,  congrufi,  cotijungo,  conxetitio,  connti),  'niKisto,  in- 
Men,  insur/i.  and  interillco,  in  the  Dictionary.    See  also  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  400-426 

4  See  avcfdt'i,  accidd,  adtlo,  adfero,  adhaeretcd,  adhibed,  adjungft,  ailn'itor,  ad- 
icrlbo,  adttum  illfidfi,  incidfi,  incvmbo,  incurro,  infero,  ojff.ro.  oppftno.  in  tha  Dictionary 


ii02  DATIVE. 

Adlre  Jras,  to  approach  TH«  ALTARS.  Cic.  Ad  oonxules  adfre,  to  go  TO  THK  cow 
auLS.  Clc.  In  lii-llum  insistit,  he  devotes  himself  to  the  war.  Caes.  Ad  omne  pericu- 
lum  opponitur,  he  is  exposed  to  every  peril.  Cic. 

4.  Several  compounds  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative  without 
any  special  difference  of  meaning :  > 

Mttnititmibus  adjacent,  they  are  near  THE  FORTIFICATIONS.  Tac.  Mare  illud  ad- 
jacent, they  are  near  that  SBA.  Nep.  Quibus  timor  incesserat,  whom  fear  had  seised. 
Sail.  Timor  patres  incessit,  fear  seized  the  fathers.  Liv. 

5.  Many  compounds  which  usually  take  the  Accusative  or  the  Ablative 
witn  a  preposition  in  classical  prose,  admit  a  Dative  in  poetry : 

Quid  contendat  hirundd  cycnls  (for  cum  cycnls),  why  should  the  sicallow  contend 
WITH  s  WANS?  Lucr.  Contendis  ffomero,  you  contend  WITH  HOMER.  Prop.  Aid  mis 
illabi  nostris  (for  in  animds  nottros),  to  sink  into  our  minds.  Verg. 

NOTE.— Instead  of  the  compounds  of  ad,  ante,  etc.,  the  poets  sometimes  use  in  the 
same  sense  the  simple  verbs"  with  the  Dative: 

QuI  haeserat  (—  adhaeserat)  Evandro,  who  had  joined  himself  10  EVANDER.  Verp. 
Ponis  (=  apponis)  mihl  porcum,  you  offer  ME  (place  BEFORE  ME)  stcine's  flevh.  Mar- 
tial. 

387.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  POSSESSOR  is  used  with  the 
verb  sum: 

Mihl  est  noverca,  I  have  (there  is  TO  ME)  a  stepmother?  Verg.  Fond 
nSmen  Arethusa  est,  THE  FOUNTAIN  has  (there  is  TO  THE  FOUNTAIN)  the  name 
Arethusa.  Cic.  But — 

NOTE  1. — The  DATIVE  OF  THE  NAME  as  well  af  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  expres- 
sions of  naming :  nfrmen  e*t,  ni'inen  datur,  etc. : 

Scipioni  Afric<~in<>  cognomen  fuit,  SCIPIO  had  the  surname  AFRICANUS.  Sail.  Here 
Africans),  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cngnnmen,  is  put  by  attraction  in  appo- 
sition with  Scipifmi. 

NOTE  2.— The  GENITIVE  OF  THE  NAME  dependent  upon  nomen  occurs : 

Nomen  Mercur!  est  mini,  I  have  the  name  OF  MERCCRT.  Plaut. 

NOTE  3. — By  a  GREEK  IDIOM,  nolens,  ctipifns,  or  invltus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
Dative  of  the  possessor : 

Quibus  liclluin  volentibus  erat,  who  UKed  the  tear  (lit.,  to  whom  WISHING  the  war 
was).  Tac. 

388.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  APPARENT  AGENT  is  used 
with  the  Gerundive,  and  with  the  Passive  Periphrastic 
Conjugation : 

1  Such  are  adjaceo,  adiilor,  antecedo,  anteeo,  cfnitor,  despero  (also  with  de X  illu- 
20,  incedo,  insulto,  invddo,  praecvrrii,  praeoto,  praestolor. 

2  Thus  feru  for  ar/J'ero,  prfifero  ;  haereo  for  adhaereo ;  pfmfi  for  appfmo,  depono. 
Impl-nO,  etc. 

*  The  Datirf  with  fst  usually  expresses  simple  possession  or  ownership,  like  the 
English  have.  HabeO  Is  gometimes  used  in  the  same  sense,  but  it  more  commonly  ex- 
presses some  of  the  shades  of  meaning  denoted  by  hold,  keep,  regard,  and  the  like : 
ircem  half  re,  '  to  hold  the  citadel ' ;  aliquem  in  obeididne  habere,  '  to  hold  or  keep 
me  in  siege ' ;  pro  hoste  habere, '  to  regard  as  an  enemy.' 


DATIVE.  203 

Proelia  conjugibus  loquenda,  battles  FOR  WOMEN  to  talk  about.1  Hor. 
Suum  cuique  incommodum  ferendum  est,  EVERY  ONE  has  his  own  trouble  to 
bear,  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble.  Cic. 

NOTE.—  Instead  of  the  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent,  the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab  is 
sometimes  used : 

QuibuB  egt  a  vobis  *  consulenduin,  for  whom  measures  must  be  taken  BY  YOU.  Cic. 

1.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  APPARENT  AOBNT  is  sometimes  used  with  the  com- 
pound tenses  of  passive  verbs : 

Mihi  consilium  captum  jam  did  est,  I  have  a  plan  long  since  formed.'1   Cic. 

NOTB.— HABBO  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  EST  MIHI  with  the 
Participle : 

Bellum  habuit  indicium,  he  had  a  war  (already)  declared.  Oic. 

2.  The  REAL  AGENT,  with  Passive  verbs,  is  in  classical  prose  denoted  hy 
the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab /»  see  415,  I. 

3.  The  DATIVE  is  used  with  the  tenses  for  incomplete  action,  to  designate 
the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indirect  Object,  the  person  BY  whom  and 
FOR  (TO)  whom  the  action  is  performed  : 

Honesta  bonls  viris  quaeruntur,  honorable  things  are  tought  BY  good  MEN 
(i.  e.,  for  themselves).  Cic. 

4.  In  the  POETS,  the  Dative  is  often  used  for  the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab,  to 
designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action : 

Non  intellegor  ulli,  lam  not  understood  BY  ANY  ONE.  Ovid.  Rggnataarva 
Satumo,  lands  ruled  BY  SATURN.  Verg. 

389.  The  ETHICAL  DATIVE,  denoting  the  person  to 
whom  the  thought  is  of  special  interest,  is  often  introduced 
into  the  Latin  sentence :  * 

At  libi  venit  ad  me",  but  LO,  he  comes  to  mt.  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihl  intendat 
:inimum,  let  him,  I  PRAY,  direct  his  attention  to  those  things.  Liv.  QuO  mihl 
abls,  whither  are  you  going,  PRAY  ?  Verg.  Quid  mihl  Celsus  agit,  what  is 
MY  Celsus  doing  ?  Hor. 

1  The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive,  whether  alone  or  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjuga- 
tion, designates  the  person  who  has  the  work-  to  do ;  while  with  the  compound  tenses 
of  passive  verbs  it  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done. 

1  Here  </  vobis  is  necessary,  to  distinguish  the  Agent  from  the  Indirect  Object,  yui- 
biix ;  but  the  Ablative  with  <i  or  ab  is  sometimes  used  when  this  necessity  does  not 
exist. 

1  The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive  Is  best  explained  as  the  Datire  of  Possessor  or 
of  Indirect  Object.  Thus,  mum  cuique  incommodum  ent  means  'every  one  has  his 
trouble '  (cuique,  Dative  of  Possessor) ;  and  mum  caique  incommodum  ferendum  eat, 
'every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear.'  80  too,  mifi'i  consi/ium  est,  '  I  have  a  plan';  mihl 
cfowilium  cafjtum  est,  '  I  have  a  plan  (already)  formed.' 

4  Compare  the  following  from  Shakespeare :  '  He  plucked  me  ope  his  doublet  and 
offered  them  his  throat  to  cut1  Julius  Caesar,  Act  I.,  Scene  II.  •  It  ascends  me  Into 
the  brain.'  Henry  IV.,  Part  II.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III.  'He  presently  steps  me  a  little 
Henry  IV.,  Part  I.,  Act  IV.,  9c«ne  III. 


204  DATIVH. 

NOTE  1. — The  ETHICAL  DATIVE  is  always  a  personal  pronoun. 

NOTB  2.  —The  ETHICAL  DATIVE  occurs  with  VOLO  and  with  INTERJECTIONS  : 

Quid  tfibls  vultis,  what  do  you  tcish,  intend,  meant  Liv.     Avaritia  quid  sibi  vult 

ichat  does  avarice  mean  f  or  what  object  can  it  havef  Cic.     Ei  mihi,  ah  ME!  Verg 

Vae  tibi,  woe  TO  YOU.  Ter.    See  381,  note  3,  3). 

RULE  XIII.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  For  which. 

390.  Two  Datives — the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  and  the  OB 
JECT  or  END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a  few  verbs : 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs  : 

Maid  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  AN  EVIL  TO  MEN  (lit.,  is  TO  MEN 
FOR  AN  EVIL).  Cic.  Est  mihi  curae,  it  is  A  CARE  TO  ME.  Cic.  Domus 
dederorl  domino  fit,  the  house  becomes  A  DISGRACE  TO  ITS  OWNER.  Cic. 
Venit  Atticls  auxilio,  he  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep. 
Hoc  ill!  tribuebatur  Ignaviae,  this  was  imputed  to  him  as  cowardice  (for 
cowardice).  Cic.  Els  subsidio  missus  est,  he  was  sent  to  them  as  aid.  Nep. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs  in  connection  with  the  AC- 
CUSATIVE : 

Qulnque  cohortes  castrls  praesidio  rellquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  FOR  THE 

DEFENCE   OF  THE   CAMP  (lit.,  TO    THE    CAMP    FOR   A    DEFENCE).     Ca6S.       Pericles 

agros  suos  don5  reT  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic 
as  a  present  (lit.,  for  a  present).   Just. 

NOTE  1 . — The  verbs  which  take  TWO  DATIVES  are — 

1)  Intransitive  verbs  signifying  to  be,  become,  go,  and  the  like:  Hum,  flo,  etc. 

2)  Transitive  verbs  signifying  to  give,  send,  leare,  impute,  regard,  chooxe,  and  the 
iike :  do,  dim/),  di~>c$,  habefl,  mitto,  relinquo,  tribuo,  verto,  etc.     These  take  in  the 
Active  two  Datives  with  an  Accusative;  but  in  the  Passive  two  Datives  only,  as  the 
direct  object  of  the  Active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  Passive:  see  464. 

NOTE  2.— One  of  the  Datives  is  often  omitted,  or  its  place  supplied  by  a  predicate  noun: 

Ea  sunt  tisul,  thene  things  are  OF  USE  (FOR  CSF,).  Caes.  Tfi  illl  pater  ee,  you  are 
A  FATHER  TO  HIM.  Tac.  See  362,  2,  note  3. 

NOTE  3. — With  audiens  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  dictfi  dependent  upon  au- 
diens,  and  a  personal  Dative  dependent  upon  tlicti'i  audifns,  and  sometimes  ilictfi  oboe- 
diens  is  used  like  </ictf<  andienx: 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  /  am  listening  to  the  icord.  Plaut.  NObls  dicto  audit'ns  est, 
he  is  obedient  to  us.  Cic.  Magistro  dicto  oboediens,  obedient  to  hi*  master.  Plaut. 

RULE  XTV.— Dative  with  Adjectives. 

391.  With  adjectives  the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  the  quality 
is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

Patriae  solum  omnibus  carura  est,  the  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  TO  ALL. 
Cic.  Id  aptum  est  femporl,  this  is  adapted  TO  THE  TIME.  Cic.  Omni  aetati 
mors  est  cornmiinis.  dea/h  is  common  TO  every  AGE.  Cic.  Cams  similis  lupo 


DATIVE.  205 

est,  a  dog  is  similar  to  a  wolf.   Cic.     Naturae  accommodatum,  adapted  U 
nature.   Cic.     Graeciae  utile,  useful  to  Greece.   Nep. 

I.  ADJECTIVES  which  take  the  DATIVE  are  chiefly  those  signifying— 
Agreeable,  easy,  friendly,  like,  near,  necessary,  suitable,  subject,  useful,  f.o- 

gether  with  others  of  a  similar  or  opposite  meaning,1  and  verbals  in  biUs. 

II.  OTHER  CONSTRUCTIONS  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1.  The  Accusative  with  a  Preposition :  (1)  in,  erga,  adversus,  with  ad- 
jectives signifying  friendly,  hostile,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or 
end  for  which,  with  adjectives  signifying  useful,  suitable,  inclined,  etc.  r 

Perindulgens  in  patrem,  very  kind  TO  HIS  FATHER.  Cic.  Multas  ad  res 
perutilis,  very  ueeful  FOR  many  THINGS.  Cic.  Pronus  ad  lu'itum,  inclined  to 
mourning.  Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  without  a  Preposition  with  propior,  prdximus  : 
Propior  montem,  nearer  THE  MOUNTAIN.   Sail.     PrOxiraus  mare,  nearest  to 

the  sea.   Caes.    See  433  and  437. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a  Preposition : 

Alienum  a  vita  mea,  foreign  TO  my  LIFE.  Ter.  Homine  alienissimum, 
most  foreign  TO  or  FROM  MAN.  Cic.  El  cum  Roscio  communis,  common  to 
htm  and  Roscius  (with  Roscius).  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive:  (1)  with  adjectives  used  substantively ;  (2)  with  adjec- 
tives meaning  tike?  unlike?  near,  belonging  to,  and  a  few  others: 3 

Amlcissimus  hominum,  the  best  friend  OF  THE  MEN  (i.  e.,  the  most  friendly 
to  them).  Cic.  Alexandn  similis,  Hke  ALEXANDER  (i.  e.,  in  character).  Cic. 
Dispar  ml,  unlike  ITSELF.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom.  Cic.  Popull  Ro- 
man! est  propria  llbertas,  liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets: 

Idem  faci ,  Occident!,  fie  does  the  same  AS  TO  KILL,  or  AS  HE  WHO  KILLS.  Hor. 

NOT*  2.— For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  399,  I.,  note  1. 

RUH1  XT.— Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

392.  Tlie  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and 
adverbs : 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  ?erbs  which  take  the  Dative  : 
Justitia  est  obtemperfitio 4  tigibus,  justice  is  obedience  TO  LAWS.   Cic. 

'  Such  .'f  accommodtltut,  aequalifi,  aliemtg,  amlcax,  inim'ictm,  aptus.  ctirim, 
facilis,  difflvilis,  Jidflis,  infidelix,  finitimun,  grdtu*,  ingratus,  idonem,  ji'tcundnit. 
Injticundus,  molestus.  necewfiriw.  nMu*,  ignfttite,  noxiim,  p/lr,  dinpar,  pemicio*u*, 
propi nquus,  propriiu,  sahU'~rri«,  ftimilis,  dissimilit,  dtvarsuti,  rlc/nns,  etc. 

a  The  Genitive  is  used  especially  ofttkenetw  and  unlikeness  IN  CHARACTER. 

s  4.8  similix,  disximilis,  awimilis,  cfmximilis,  p'ir,  dispar ;  adfinis,  flnitimu.' 
woplnqum;  propriuft,  tacer,  communis;  alienus,  contrariu*,  insuffus,  etc. 

*  From  obtempwo.  which  takes  the  Dative 


^06  GENITIVE. 

Stfn  respSnsio,  a  reply  TO  HIMSELF.  Cic.  OpulentO  hominl  servitus  dura 
est,  serving  (servitude  to)  a  rich  man  is  hard.  Plaut.  Facilis  descensus ' 
Averno,  easy  is  the  descent  to  Avernus.  Verg. 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the 
Dative : 

Congruenter  *  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  WITH  NATURE.  Cic. 
Sibl  convenienter  dlcere,  to  speak  consistently  WITH  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Pr5xi 
me"  hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— In  rare  instances  the  Dative  occurs  with  a  few  nouns  and  adverbs  not  in- 
tsluded  in  the  rale : 

Tribumcia  potestas,  mummentum  libertdti,  tribunician  power,  a  defence  FOB  HB, 
K.KTY.  Liv.  Huic  una  =  una  cum  hoc,  -with  this  one.  Verg. 

NOTE  2.—  For  the  Dative  of  Gerundives  with  official  names,  see  544,  note  3. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  Dative  with  interjections,  gee  381,  note  8;  389,  note  2. 

SECTION    VI. 

GENITIVE. 

398.  The  Genitive  in  its  ordinary  use  corresponds  to  the 
English  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  of,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  relations. ' 

NOTK.— But  the  Genitive,  especially  when  objective  (396,  III.),  is  sometimes  best 
rendered  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

Benefic.ii  gratia,  gratitude  FOB  A  FAVOB.  Cic.  Laborum  fuga,  escape  FROM  LABORS. 
Cic.  Ereptae  Virginia  ira,  anger  on  account  of  the  rescue  of  the  maiden.  Verg. 

394.  The  Genitive  is  used  chiefly  to  qualify  or  limit  nouns 
and  adjectives,4  though  it  also  occurs  with  verbs  and  adverbs. 

RULE  XVI.— Genitive  with  Nouns. 

395.  Any   noun,   not   an    appositive,   qualifying   the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Catonis  orationgs,  CATO'S  orations.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  OP 
THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  Mors  Hamilcaris,  the  death  OF  HAMILCAR.  Liv.  Deum 
metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consilil  magnl,  a  man  of  great  pru- 
dence. Caes.  Pars  popull,  a  part  of  the  people.  Cic. 

1  From  descends,  which  admits  the  Dative  in  poetry ;  see  385,  4, 1). 

5  From  congruens,  which  takes  the  Dative. 

1  The  Genitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  an  adjective,  and  means  simply  <?/or  belonging 
to.  Thus,  regis,  equivalent  to  regiw,  means  of  or  belonging  to  a  king.  On  the  origin 
»nd  use  of  the  Genitive,  see  Hubschmann,  p.  108;  Merguet,  p.  69;  Holzweissig,  pp.  2fl 
»nd  73;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  447-498;  Roby,  II.,  pp.  116-187. 

*  Doubtless  originally  it  limited  only  nouns  and  adjective* 


GENITIVE,  20? 

SOT*  1.— For  the  Appositive,  see  363. 

NOTE  2. — An  ADJECTIVE  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive : 

Bellica  gloria  =  belli  gloria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic.  Conjnnx  Hectorea  =  con1unx 
Hectoris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Verg.  Pugna  Marathfmia.  the  battle  of  Marathon,  Cle. 
Diana  Ephesia,  Diana  of  Ephems.  Cic.  See  393,  foot-note. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  Predicate  Genitive,  see  4O1. 

NOTE  4.— For  special  uses  of  the  Dative,  see  384,  4,  note  2. 

396.  The  qualifying  Genitive  may  be — 

I.  A  POSSESSIVE  GENITIVE,'  designating  the  author  and  the  possessor  : 

XenophOntia  librl,  the  books  of  Xenophon.  Cic.  Fanum  Neptuni,  tht 
temple  of  Neptune.  Nep. 

II.  A  SUBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  subject  or  agent  of  the  ac- 
tion, feeling,  etc. : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  bite  of  the  serpent.  Cic.  Pavor  Numidarum,  tht  fear 
of  the  A'umidians.  Liv. 

NoTE.--The  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUN  is  regularly  used  for  the  Subjective  Genitive  of 
Personal  pronouns : 

Mea  domus,  my  houye.  Cic.    Fatna  tua,  your  fame.  Cio. 

III.  An  OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  object  toward  which  the 
action  or  feeling  is  directed : 

Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Memoria  malOrum,  the  recollection 
of  sufferings.  Cic.  DeQm  metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — For  the  OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  the  Accusative  with  in,  ergra,  or  adver- 
sus  is  sometimes  used  : 

Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  toward  the  race  of  men.  Cic.  Erg&  vos 
amor,  love  toward  you.  Cic. 

Nont  2.— The  POSSESSIVE  occurs,  though  rarely,  for  the  Objective  Genitive  of  Per- 
sonal pronouns : 

Tua  flducia,  reliance  on  you.  Cic. 

IV.  A  PARTITIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  whole  of  which  a  part  is 
taken : 

Quis  vestrfim,  which  of  youf  Cic.  Vltae  pars,  a  part  of  lift.  Cic. 
'Jmnium  aapientissimus,  the  wisest  of  all  men,  Cic. 

V.  A  DESCRIPTIVE  GENITIVE,  also  called  a  GENITIVE  OP  CHARACTERISTIC, 
designating  character  or  quality,  including  value,  price,  size,  wcigJit,  age,  etc. 

Vir  mfiximi  cOnsilil,  a  man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  ingenii 
juvenis,  a  youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Vestis  magnl  pretii,  a  garment  of 
great  valve.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  yearn.  Nep. 
Corona  parvl  ponderis,  a  crown  of  small  weight.  Liv.  See  404. 

1  It  will  be  found  convenient  thus  to  characterize  the  different  uses  of  the  Genitive 
by  the  relation  actually  existing  between  the  words  united  by  it,  though  that  special  re- 
lation is  not  expressed  by  the  case  itself,  but  merely  suggested  by  the  meaning  of  tin 
words  tun-  united. 


208  GENITIVE. 

NOTE  1  .—The  Descriptive  Genitive  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  som« 
other  modifier,  unless  it  be  a  compound  containing  a  modifier;  as  hfijusmodi  =  fuijiu 
modi;  tridut,  from  tree  dies;  bidui,  from  duo  (bis)  dies. 

NOTE  2.— For  id  genus  —  ejus  generis,  omne  genus  —  omnis  generis,  see  378,  2. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Descriptive  Ablative,  see  419,  II.,  with  note. 

VL  An  APPOSITIONAL  GENITIVE,  having  the  general  force  of  an  Apposi 
live  (363) : 

Virtus  continentiae,  the  virtue  of  self-control.  Cic.  Oppidum  Antiochiae, 
the  city  of  Antioch.  Cic.  Tellus  Ausoniae,  the  land  of  Ausonia.  Verg. 

397.  The  PARTITIVE  GENITIVE  designates  the  whole  of  which 
a  part  is  taken.  It  is  used — 

1.  With  pars,  nemd,  nihil ;  with  nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight, 
etc.,  as  modius,  legib,  talentum  ;  and  with  any  nouns  used  partitively : 

Bquorum  pars,  a  part  OF  THE  HORSES.  Liv.  Nihil  novi  (441,  2),  nothing 
NEW  (OF  NEW).  Cic.  Nihil  reliqul  (441,  2),  nothing  left  (lit.,  OF  THE  rest). 
Sail.  Medimnum  triticl,  a  bushel  of  wheat.  Cic.  Pecuniae  talentum,  a  talent 
of  money.  Nep.  Quorum  Gaius,  of  whom  Gains.  Cic. 

2.  With  Numerals  used  substantively : ' 

Quorum  quattuor,  four  of  whom.  Liv.  Equitum  centum,  a  hundred  of 
the  cavalry.  Curt.  Sapientum  octavus,  the  eighth  of  the  wise  men.  Hor 
Unus  pontium,  one  of  the  bridges.  Caes. 

NOTE. — In  good  prose  the  Genitive  is  not  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  sam.i 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English  : 

Qui  (not  guf-rum)  duo  supersunt,  of  whom  ttco  survive.  Cic.  Omnes  homines,  all 
men.  Cic.  But  see  p.  209,  note  4,  with  foot-note. 

3.  With  Pronouns  and  'Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  with 
comparatives,  sup«rlatives,  and  neuters :  * 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you  ?  Cic.  Num  quidnam  novi,  is  there  anything 
new  (OF  NEW)  ?  Cic.  C6nsulum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls.  Liv.  Prior  horum, 
the  former  of  these.  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissiml,  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 
Id  temporis,  that  (of)  time.  Cic.  Multum  operae,  much  (of)  service.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Pronouns  and  adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Partitive 
Genitive,  take  the  gender  of  the  Genitive,  unless  they  agree  directly  with  some  othei 
word ;  see  consulum  alter,  above. 

NOTE  l.—  Uttrque,  'each,'  'both,'  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective:  but  when  it  is 
combined  it  the  singular  number  with  another  pronoun,  it  usually  takes  that  pronoun  in 
the  Genitive: 

Uterque  exercitus,  each  army.  Caes.  Quae  utraque,  both  of  which.  Sail.  Utrique 
nostrum3  gratum,  acceptable  to  each  of  us.  Cic. 

1  Numerals  used  adjectively  agree  with  their  nouns:  mille  homines,  'a  thousand 
men';  m/lle  Jiominum,  'a  thousand  of  men';  multl  homines,  'many  men';  miilf) 
hominum,  'many  of  the  men.' 

*  An  hfa.  id,  iflud,  quid ;  multum,  plfm,  plurimvm,  minut,  minimum,  tantvm 
quantum,  etc. 

*  A  Partitict  Genitive,  because  a  pronoun. 


GENITIVE.  209 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Partitive  Genitive,  the  Accusative  with  inter  or  ante,  or  th« 
Ablative  with  ex.  de,  or  in,  is  sometimes  used : 

Inter  reges  opulentissimns,  the  most  wealthy  of  (among)  kings.  Sen.  Onus  ex  viris, 
one  of  the  heroes.  Clc.  Onus l  de  legatis,  one  of  the  lieutenants.  CIc. 

NOTE  4. — Poets  and  late  prose  writers  make  a  very  free  use  of  the  Partitive  Genitive 
after  adjectives : 

Sancta  dearum,  holy  goddess.  Enn.  Sancte  deorum,  0  holy  god.  Verg.  FEstSa 
dierum,  festal  days.  Hor.  Leves  cohortium,  the  light-armed  cohorts.  Tac.  Inclutnj 
phiiosophorum,  the  renowned  philosopher.  Just.  KSliquum  diel,  the  rest  of  the  day. 
Liv.  Multum  diel,  much  of  the  day.  Liv.  RSliquum  noctis,  the  rest  of  the  night.  Tac. 
Strata  viarum  =  stratae  viae,  paved  streets.  Verg.  Vana  rerum  =  vanae  re's,  vain 
things.  Hor.  Hominum  cuncfi,  all  of  the  men?  Ovid.  Ciincta  terrarum,  all  lands. 
Hor.  See  also  438,  6. 

NOTE  5. — The  Neuter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  with  the  Partitive  Genitive  is  some- 
times used  of  persons  : 

Quid  h5c  est  hominis,  WHAT  KIND 'OF  A  MAN  is  this?  Plant.  Quidquid  erat  pa- 
trum  reos  diceres,  you  would  have  said  that  ALL  THE  SENATORS  (lit.,  WHATEVER  there 
was  OF  FATHERS)  were  accused.  Liv.  Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  incedunt,  why  are 
BO  MANY  MEN  (so  MUCH  OF  MEN)  cominff  hither  t  Plant. 

4.  The  Partitive  Genitive  also  occurs  with  a  few  adverbs,  especially  when 
they  are  used  substantively : 8 

AnnOrum  adfatim  ^abundance  of  arms.  Liv.  Lucis  minis,  too  much  (of)  light. 
Ovid.  Sapientiae  parum,  little  (of)  wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiarum,  a  portion 
of  the  force*.  Liv.  Quod  6jus  facere  potest,  as  far  as  (what  of  it)  he  is  able  to 
do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world.  Cio.  Hue  arrogantiae, 
to  this  degree  of  insolence.  Tac.  Maxime  omnium,  most  of  all.  Cio. 

398.  GENITIVE  IN  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. — Note  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.  The  GOVERNING  WORD  is  often  omitted.    Thus — 

Aedes,  templwn,  discipulus,  hom8,  juvenis,  puer,  etc. ;  causa,  gratia,  and 
mdeed  any  word  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  (sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv.  Hannibal  anno- 
rum  novem  (sc.  puer),  Hannibal,  a  boy  nine  years  of  age.  Liv.  Aberant 
bidul  (xc.  viam  or  spatium),  they  were  two  days'1  journey  distant.  Cic.  C&n- 
ferre  vltam  Trebonl  cum  Dolabellae  (sc.  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of  Trebonius 
with  that  of  Dolabella.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
Another  Genitive,  as  in  the  last  example;  and  then  the  second  Genitive  is  sometimes 
attracted  Into  the  case  of  the  governing  word : 

1  Vnus  is  generally  followed  by  the  Ablative  with  eon  or  df,  but  sometime!  by  the 
Genitive. 

3  Observe  that  in  this  case  the  partitive  Idea  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  the 
construction  is  partitive  In  form,  but  not  in  sense. 

8  As  with  adverbs  of  QUANTITY — abunde,adfatim,nimis,  parum,  partim,  quoad, 
tati*.  etc.;  of  PLACE — hie,  hue,  nusguam.  ubl.  etc.;  of  EXTENT,  DEOBEK,  etc. — ef>.  hue, 
qu'<;  and  with  superlatives.  As  adverbs  are  substantives  or  Adjectives  to  origin,  it  if 
not  strange  that  they  are  thus  used  with  the  Genitive. 


210  GENITIVE. 

Natura  horninis  beluls  (for  beluarwn  naturae)  antecedit,  the  nature  of  man  tur 
passes  (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son,  daughter,  husband,  wife,  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Genitive  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed  : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Gisco's  Hasdrubal,  or  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Cisco.  Liv.  Hec 
toris  Andromache,  Hector's  Andromache,  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector.  Verg. 

2.  Two  GENITIVES  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun.     One  is 
generally  subjective,  the  other  either  objective  or  descriptive: 

Memml  odium  potentiae,  Memmius's  hatred  of  power.  Sail.  Helvetioruu 
injuriae  popull  Roman!,  the  wrongs  done  by  the  Helvetii  to  the  Roman  people. 
Caes.  Superiorum  dierum  Sablnl  cunctati5,  the  delay  of  Sabin-us  during  (lit., 
of ')  the  preceding  days.  Caes. 

3.  A   GENITIVE   sometimes   accompanies   a  POSSESSIVE,  especially  tht 
Genitive  of  ipse,  solus,  unus,  or  omnis : 

Tua  ipsius  amlcitia,1  your  own  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  s6lius  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.  Nomen  meum  absentis,  my  name  in  my  absence.  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Instar,  '  likeness,' '  image,'  in  the  sense  of 
as  large  as,  of  the  size  of,  equal  to : 

Instar  montis  equus,  a  horse  of  the  size  of  a  mountain.  Verg. 

5.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  prldiS,  poslrldie,  ergo,  and  tenus:* 
Pridie  ejus  diel,  on  the  day  before  that  day.   Caes.    Postrldie  ejus  diel,  on 

the  day  after  that  day.   Caes.     Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue.   Cic.    Lum- 
borum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.   Cic.     For  tenus  with  the  Ablative,  see  434. 

RULE  XVII.    Genitive  with  Adjectives. 

399.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  OP  PRAISE.   Cic.     Otil  cupidus,  desirous  OF  LEIS- 
URE.   Liv.      COnscius    conjurationis,   cognizant  of   the  conspiracy.    Sail. 
Amans  sui  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself.    Cic.     Efficiens  voluptatis,  produc- 
tive of  pleasure.   Cic.     Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory.   Liv. 
NOTB. — This  Genitive  corresponds  to  the  Objective  Genitive  with  nouns : 
Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.     Appetens  gloriae,  desirous  of  (eager  for) 
glory.  Cic. 

I.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  adjectives  denoting— 
1.  DESIRE  or  AVERSION  : 3 


1  JpeHus  may  be  explained  as  agreeing  with  tut  (of  you),  Involved  In  tua,  and  solitM 
and  absentia  as  agreeing  with  mei  (of  me),  involved  in  meum. 

3  These  words  are  strictly  nouns,  and,  as  such,  govern  the  Genitive.  Pridie  and 
postrrldie  are  Locatives;  ergo  is  an  Ablative,  and  tenus,  an  Accusative;  see  304;  307, 
note  1. 

8  Such  are — (1)  ovidus,  cupidut,  studwsus ;  fastldifisus,  etc. ;  (2)  gnarus,  "\gndru^ 
•wntultut,  conscius,  Inscius,  nescius,  ctrtus,  incertus;  providus,  priidens,  impru 


GENITIVE,  211 

Contentionis  eupidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  studiosus,  stu- 
dious of  (student  of )  wisdom.  Cic.  Terrae  fastldiosus,  weary  of  the  land.  Hor. 

2.  KNOWLEDGE,  SKILL,  RECOLLECTION,  with  their  contraries : ' 

R61  gnarus,  acquainted  with  the  thing.  Cic.  Prudens  rel  militaris,  skilled 
in  military  science.  Nep.  Perttus  belli,  skilled  in  war.  Nep.  Insuetus 
laboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor.  Caes.  GlOriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory. 
Liv.  Immemor  beneficu,  forgetful  of  kindness.  Cic 

3.  PARTICIPATION,  GUILT,  FULNESS,  MASTERY,  with  their  contraries : * 

Adflnis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.  Cic.  Rationis  particeps,  endowed  with 
(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  Rationis  expers,  destitute  of  reason.  Cic.  Manifestus 
rerum  capitalium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Vita  metus  plena,  a  lift 
full  of  fear.  Cic.  Mel  potens  sum,  /  am  master  of  myself.  Liv.  Virtutis 
comipoB,&tpable  of  virtue.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Genitive  and  Dative  sometimes  occur  with  the  same  adjective : 

Mr-ns  sibi  conscia  rficti,  a  mind  conscious  to  itself  of  rectitude.  Verg.  Sibi  conscil 
culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 

Norn  2.— For  the  Genitive  with  adjectives  used  substantively,  and  with  adjectives 
meaning  like,  unlike,  near,  belonging  to,  etc.,  see  391,  II.,  4. 

NOTK  8. — For  the  Genitive  with  dlgnus  and  indlgnus,  see  421,  note  3. 

II.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  VERBALS  in  ax,  and  with  PRESENT  PAR- 
TICIPLES used  adjectively : 

Virtutum  ferax,  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  Tenax  prOpositl,  tenacious 
(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Hor.  Amans  patriae,  fond  of  his  country."  Cic. 
Fugiens  laboris.  shunning  labor.  Caes. 

III.  In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose  writers,  especially  in  Tacitus,  the  Gen- 
itive  is  used — 

1.  With  adjectives  of  almost  every  variety  of  signification,  simply  to 
define  their  application : 8 

AevI  maturus,  mature  in  age.  Verg.  Inggns  vlrium,  mighty  in  strength. 
Sail.  Sen  studiOrum,  late  in  studies.  Hor.  Integer  aevl,  unimpaired  in  age 
(\.  e. ,  in  the  bloom  of  youth).  Verg.  Aeger  animl,4  afflicted  in  spirit.  Liv.  Anx- 
ius  animl,4  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.  Fldens  animl,  confident  in  spirit.  Verg. 

2.  With  a  few  adjectives,  to  denote  cause : 

Laetus  labOrum,  pleased  with  the  labors.  Verg.  Notus  animl  paternl,  dis- 
tinguished for  paternal  affection.  Hor. 

dens;  peritus,  imperitm,  rudi*,  inxuftut;  memor,  imm6mor,ete.;  (8)  adfinw,  dm- 
sort,  exsors,  expers,  particeps,  manifextns,  noa-ius;  plfnut,  fertiUt,  refertus,  egenus, 
inops,  vacuus;  potens,  im potens,  compos,  etc. 
1  See  foot-note  3,  page  210. 

*  Amdns  patriae,  'fond  of  his  country,'  represents  the  affection  as  permanent  and 
constant;  whereas  the  participial  construction,  amdns  patriam,  'loving  his  country,' 
designates  a  particular  instance  or  act. 

8  Like  the  Ablative  of  Specification;  see  424.  For  voti  reus,  'bound  to  fulfil  a 
vow,'  see  41O,  III.,  note  2. 

*  Probably  a  Loca'irc  in  origin,  as  animlt  is  used  in  similar  instances  in  the  pluml 


212 

400.  Adjectives  which  usually  take  the  Genitive,  sometimes 
admit  other  constructions : 

1.  The  DATIVE  : 

Mantis  subitls  avidae,  hands  ready  for  tudden  events.  Tac.  Insuetus  m6ri- 
bus  Romanls,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  manners.  Liv.  Facinort  mens  cOnscia, 
a  mind  conscious  of  crime,  Cic.  See  391. 

2.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  A  PREPOSITION  : 

Insuetus  ad  pugnam,  unaccustomed  to  battle.  Liv.  Fertilis  ad  omnia,  pro- 
ductive for  all  things.  Plin.  Avidus  in  novas  res,  eager  for  new  things.  Liv. 

3.  The  ABLATIVE  WITH  or  WITHOUT  A  PREPOSITION  : 

Prttdens  in  jure  clvlli,  learned  in  civil  law.  Cio.  His  de  rebus  cSnscius, 
aware  of  these  things.  Cic.  Vacuus  de  defensoribus,  destitute  of  defenders. 
Caes.  Curls  vacuus,  free  from  cares.  Cic.  Eefertus  bonls,  repleteWith,  bless- 
ings. Cic.  See  414,  III. 

RULE  XVIII.    Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a 
different  person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  TO  THE  ENEMY.'  Liv.  Senatus 
Hannibalis  erat,  the  senate  was  HANNIBAL'S  (i.  e.,  in  his  interest).  Liv. 
Judicis  est  verum  sequl,  to  follow  the  truth  is  the  duty  OF  A  JUDGE.*  Cic. 
Parvl  pretii  est,  it  is  of  small  value.  Cic.  Tyrus  mare  suae  dicionis  *  fecit, 
Tyre  brought  the  sea  under  (lit.,  made  the  sea  OF)  her  sway.  Curt. 

NOTE  1.— For  a  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing, 
see  368;  373,1. 

NOTE  2. — A  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  is  often  nearly  or  quit*  equivalent  to  a  Predicate 
adjective  (36O,  note  1):  hominin  est  =  humdnum  est,  'it  is  the  mark  of  a  man,'  'is 
human';  ntultl  est  =  xtultum  erf,/ it  Is  foolish.'  The  Genitive  is  the  regular  construc- 
tion in  adjectives  of  one  ending :  sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  est),  'it  is  the  part  of  a  wise 
man,' '  is  wise.' 

NOTK  3.— Possessive  pronouns  in  agreement  with  the  subject  supply  the  place  of  the 
Predicate  Genitive  4  of  personal  pronouns : 

Est  tuum  (not  tul )  videre,  it  is  your  duty  to  see.  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — Aequl,  bonl,  and  rSliqul  occur  as  Predicate  Genitives  In  such  expressions 
M  aequl  facere,  aequl  bonlque  facere,  bonl  consulere,  'to  take  in  pood  part,1  and 
rfliqul  facere, '  to  leave ' : 

Aequl  bonlque  facio,  I  take  it  in  good  part.  Ter.  Millie's  nihil  rSliqui  vIctTs  fgcere, 
the  soldiers  left  nothing  to  the  vanquished.  Sail 


1  Literally,  were  or  THE  ENEMY,  or  were  THE  ENEMY'S. 
5  Literally,  is  OF  A  JUDGE. 

3  Here  dicionis,  denoting  a  different  thing  from  mare,  of  which  it  is  predicated,  U 
put  in  the  Genitive. 

4  This  is  another  illustration  of  the  close  relationship  between  a  Predicate  Genitiv* 
and  a  Predicate  Adjective;  see  also  note  & 


GENITIVM.  313 

402.  The  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  is  generally  Possessive  or  De- 
scriptive, rarely  Partitive  : 

Haec  hostium  erant,  these  things  were  OF  (belonged  to)  THE  ENEMY.  Liv. 
Est  imperatoris  superare,  it  is  the  duty  OF  A  COMMANDER  to  conquer.  Caes. 
Suminae  facultatis  est,  he  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  Opera 
magni  fuit,  the  assistance  was  of  great  value.  Nep.  Fies  nobilium  fontium,' 
you  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fountains.  Hor. 

403.  The  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  occurs  most  frequently  with 
sum  and  facio,  but  sometimes  also  with  verbs  of  seeming,  regard- 
ing, etc.  : 

Oram  Romftnae  diciOnis  ffecit,  he  brought  the  coast  under  (made  the  coast 
of)  Roman  rule.  Liv.  Hominis  videtur,  it  stems  to  be  the  mark  of  a  man. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  4O1. 

NOTE.—  Transitive  verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active  an  Accusative  with  the 
Genitive,  as  in  the  first  example. 

404.  The  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  of  PRICE  or  VALUE  is  used  with 
sum  and  with  verbs  of  valuing  : 

Magni  sunt  tuae  litterae,  your  letters  are  OF  GREAT  VALUE.  Cic.  Pluris 
ease,  to  be  OF  GREATER  VALUE.  Cic.  Parvl  pcndcre,  to  think  lightly  of.  Sail. 
Auctoritatom  tuam  magni  aestimO,  I  prize  your  authority  highly.  Cic. 

NOTI  1.—  With  these  verbs  the  Genitive  of  price  or  value  Is  generally  an  defective? 
as  in  the  examples,  but  pretil  is  sometimes  used  : 

Parvl  pretii  est,  it  is  of  little  value.  Cte. 

NOTE  2.  —  Nihili  and,  in  familiar  discourse,  a  few  other  Genitives9  occur: 

Nihill  facere,  to  take  no  account  of.  Cic.  Non  floccl  pendere,  not  to  care  a  straw 
(lock  of  wool)  for.  Plaut. 

405.  Tanti,  quantl,  pluris,  and  minoris  are  also  used  as  GENI- 
TIVES OF  PRICE  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  :  * 

Emit  hortos  tanti,  he  purchased  the  gardens  AT  so  GREAT  A  PRICE.   Cic. 
Vendo  frQmentum  pluris,  I  sell  grain  AT  A  HIGHER  PRICE.   Cic. 
NOTK.  —  For  the  Ablative  of  price,  see  422. 

RULE  XIX.—  Genitive  with  Special  Verbs. 

406.  The  Genitive  is  used  — 
I.  With  misereor  and  miserescO  : 

Miserere  labOrum,  pity  the  labors.  Verg.  Miserfiscite  rfigis,  pity  (fa 
King.  Verg. 


1  Facultatis  and  mdgm  are  Descriptive,  but  fontium  is  Partitive. 
a  The  following1  adjectives  are  so  used  :  magni,  parvl,  tanti,  quttntl  ;  pluris,  mi- 
ruiris;  plurim'i,  mua-imi,  and  minimi, 

*  As  amis,  flocci,  naucl,  and  pin. 

*  Observe  that  verbs  of  bwyiny  and  xel/iny  admit  the  Genitive  of  price  only  when 
one  of  these  adjectives  is  used.     In  other  eases  they  take  the  Ablative  of  price. 


214  GENITIVE. 

II.  With  recorder,  meminl,  remmiscor,  and  obllvlscor : l 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  (he  past.   Cic.    'Oblltus  sum  mel, 

/  /lave  forgotten  myself.   Ter.     Flagitiorum  recordarl,  to  recollect  base  deeds. 
Cic,     Reminlsci  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue.    Caes. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Illorum  refert,  it  concerns  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  inter- 
sstofall.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  expression,  Venit  in  mentem,  'it  occurs  to  mind,1  is  sometimes  con- 
strued with  the  Genitive  and  sometimes  with  the  Nominative: 

Venit  mini  Platonis  in  mentem,4  the  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my  mind,  or  1 
recollect  Plato.  Cic.  Non  venit  in  mentem  pugna,  does  not  the  battle  occur  to  your 
mindt  Idv. 

407.  Verbs  of  RKMEMBERING  and  FORGETTING  often  take  the 
Accusative  instead  of  the  Genitive : 

Memineram  Paullum,  /  remembered  Paullus.  Cic.  Triumphos  recordarl, 
to  recall  triumphs.  Cic.  Ea  reminlscere,  remember  those  things.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Accusative  is  the  common  construction  (1)  with  recordor  and  (2) 
with  the  other  verbs,  if  it  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  or  designates  an  object  re- 
membered by  a  contemporary  or  an  eye-witness. 

NOTE  2.— The  Ablative  with  de  is  rare : 

Recordare  de  ceteris,  bethink  yourself  of  the  others.  Cio. 

408.  The  CONSTRUCTION  with  refert  and  interest  is  as  follows : 
I.  The  PERSON  or  THING  interested  is  denoted — 

1.  By  the  Genitive,  as  under  the  rule. 

2.  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  fbssetsive.3   This  takes  the  place  of  the 
Genitive  of  personal  pronouns  : 

MeS,  rgfert,  it  concerns  me.   Ter.    Interest  mea,  it  interests  me.   Cic. 

3.  By  the  Dative,  or  Accusative  with  or  without  Ad;  but  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  refert,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person : 

Quid  refert  vlventl,  what  does  it  concern  one  living  f  Hor.  Ad  me  refert, 
it  concerns  me.  Plaut. 

II.  The  SUBJECT  OF  IMPORTANCE,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a  Neuter  Pronoun : 


1  The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  pitying,  remembering,  and  forgetting  probably  de- 
pends upon  the  substantive  idea  contained  in  the  verbs  themselves;  see  Internal  Object, 
371,  I.,  2.  Thus,  meminl  with  the  Accusative  means  I  remember  dixtinctly  and  fully, 
generally  used  of  an  eye-tcitness  or  of  a  contemporary;  but  with  a  Genitive,  it  means  to 
ha/re  some  recollection  of.  With  refert  the  Genitive  depends  upon  re,  the  Ablative  of 
res,  contained  in  the  verb,  and  with  interest  it  may  be  a  Predicate  Genitive,  or  may  sim- 
ply follow  the  analogy  of  refert. 

*  With  venit  in  mentem,  the  Genitive  Platonis  supplies  the  place  of  subject.  It 
probably  limits  the  pronominal  subject  already  contained  in  venit,  as  in  every  Latin  verb, 
it  or  (fiat  of  Plato,  the  recollection  of  Plato. 

3  See  foot-note  1.  above. 


GENITIVE.  215 

Interest  omnium  recte  facere,  to  do  right  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic.  Yestra 
hoc  interest,  this  interests  you.  Cio. 

III.  The  DEGREE  OF  INTEREST  is  exoressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a  Neutei 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a  Genitive  of  Value  (404"' : 

Vestra  maxims  interest,  it  especially  interests  you.  Cic.  Quid  nostra  re- 
fert,  what  does  it  concern  us  ?  Cic.  Magn!  interest  mea,  it  greatly  interest!-, 
"me.  Cic. 

IV.  The  OBJECT  or  END  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  ad,  rarely  by  the  Dative : 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  it  is  important  for  our  honor.   Cic, 

RULE  XX.    Accusative  and  Genitive. 

409.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  PERSON  and  the  GENI- 
ITVE  of  the  THING  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding,  admonishing :  * 

Tg  amlcitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  OF  FRIENDSHIP.  Cic.  MilitSs 
necessitatis  monet,  he  reminds  the  soldiers  of  the  necessity.  Ter. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting :  * 

VirOs  xceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  OF  CRIME.  Cic.  Levitatis  eum  con- 
vincere,  to  convict  him  of  levity.  Cic.  Absolvere  injuriae  eum,  to  acquit 
him  of  injustice.  Cic. 

III .  With  miseret,  paenitet,  pudet,  taedet,  and  piget : " 
Eorum  nOs  miseret,  we  pity  THEM  (it  moves  our  pity  OF  THEM).   Cic. 

COnsilil  m6  paenitet,  /  repent  of  my  purpose.   Cic.     M6  stultitiae  meae 
pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  my  folly.   Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Genitive  of  the  Thing  designates,  with  verbs  of  reminding,  etc.,  that 
to  which  the  attention  is  called;  with  verbs  of  accuxiny,etc.,  the  crime,  charge;  and 
with  mitteret,  paenitet,  etc.,  the  object  which  produces  the  feeling;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2.— The  personal  verbs  included  under  this  rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the 
Pimxirf  : 

Accusatus  est  prfiditifmit,  he  -teas  accused  OF  TREASON.  Nep. 


1  The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  reminding  and  admonishing  may  be  explained  like 
that  with  verbs  of  pitying,  remembering,  and  forgetting ;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 
With  verbs  of  (tccuxiny,  etc.,  the  Genitive  may  also  be  explained  In  the  same  way,  or 
may  depend  upon  nfmine,  crlmine,  or  jfidici<~>,  understood.  Sometimes  one  of  these 
nouns  is  expressed;  see  41O,  II.,  1. 

a  The  Genitive  with  paenitet,  pudet,  etc..  like  that  with  venit  in  mentem  (see  4O6, 
note,  with  foot-note),  depends  upon  the  impersonal  subject  contained  in  the  verb.  Thus, 
te  hrtec  pudent  means  these  things  nhinne  you,  and  me  ntultiti<ie  meae  pudet,  literally 
rendered,  means  of  my  folly  (1.  e.,  the  thought  of  it,  or  something  about  it),  fthamen  me. 
The  Genitive  with  mixer et  may  be  explained  either  in  the  same  way,  or  like  that  with 
miser eor;  see  foot-note  1.  page  214. 


216  GENITIVE. 

NOT«  S. — In  judicial  language  a  few  verbs  not  otherwise  so  used  are  treated  a> 
verbs  of  accusing.  Thus  condlco  occurs  with  the  Genitive  in  Livy,  I.,  82. 

410.  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. — The  following  deserve  notice: 
I.  Verbs  of  REMINDING  and  ADMONISHING  sometimes  take,  instead  of 
the  Genitive — 

1.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a  substan- 
tive, thus  admitting  two  accusatives : 

Illud  me  admones,  you  admonish  me  OF  THAT.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  de — moneo  and  its  compounds  generally  so: 
De proelio  v6s  admonul,  /  have  reminded  you  OF  THE  BATTLE.   Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  ACCUSING,  CONVICTING,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc. — 

1.  The  Genitive  with  nomine,  crlmine,  judicid,  or  some  similar  word : 
Nomine  conjurationis  damnati  sunt,  they  were  condemned  on  the  charge  of 

conspiracy.   Cic.     Innocentem  judicio  capitis  arcessere,  to  arraign  an  inno- 
cent man  on  a  capital  charge.    Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely : 
Id  me  accusas,  you  accuse  me  of  that.   Plaut. 

3.  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a  preposition,  generally  de  : 

De  pecuniis  repetundls  damnatus  est,  he  was  convicted  of  extortion.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  CONDEMNING,  the  Penalty  is  generally  expressed  by 
the  Ablative,1  or  by  the  Accusative  with  a  preposition,  usually  ad: 

Tertia  parte  damnarl,  to  be  condemned  to  forfeit  a  third  of  one's  land.  Liv. 
Capite  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death,  Cic.  Morte  multare,  to  punish  with 
death.  Cic.  Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  wild  beasts.  Suet. 

NOTE  1.— In  the  poets  the  penalty  Is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Dative: 

Morti  damnatus,  condemned  to  death.  Lucr. 

NOTK  2. — The  Genitive  occurs  in  such  special  expressions  as  capitis  condemnare, 
'to  condemn  to  death';  votl  damntirl^to  be  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow' = 'to  obtain 
a  wish';  damnftri  longl  laborw, '  to  be  condemned  to  long  labor';  rf>tl  reus*  =  votl 
damnatus, '  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow ' : 

Aliquem  capitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  one  to  death.  Cic.  Damnatus  long!  laboris, 
condemned  to  long  labor.  Hor. 

IV.  With  MISERET,  PAENITET,  PCDET,  TAEDET,  and  PIGET,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clause  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a  neuter  pronoun  or  nihil  : 

Me  paenitet  vlxisse,  7  repent  having  lived.  Cic.  Te  haec  pudent,  these 
things  shame  you.  Ter. 

NOTB  1. — Like  miseret  are  sometimes  used  miserencit,  commiserescit,  mineritur, 
commiseretur.  Like  titeilet  are  used  pertaedet,  pertaesvm  est. 

NOTB  2. — Pudet  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person  before  whom  one  It 
ashamed : 

Me  tui  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  in  your  presence.  Ter.  Pudet  homlnum,  tt  it  a 
nhamt  in  the  sight  of  men.  Lly. 

>  Regularly  so  when  the  penalty  Is  a  definite  sum  of  money. 
*  Best  explained  as  a  substantive. 


ABLATIVE.  217 

Nor*  t.—Pertaeeus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object : 
Pertaesus  Ignaviam  soam,  disgusted  with  his  own  inaction.  Suet 

V.  Many  other  verbs  sometimes  take  the  Genitive.1     Thus — 

1.  Some  verbs  of  plenty  and  want,  as  compled,  impleO,1  egeO,  indigeo,  like 
adjectives  of  the  same  meaning  (399, 1.,  3) : 

Virtus  exercitatiOnis  indiget,  virtue  requires  exercise.  Cic.  Auxilil  egere, 
to  need  aid.  Caes.  Multitudinem  religiOnis  implevit,'  he  inspired  (filled)  the 
multitude  with  religion.  Liv.  KG  ruin  satagere,  to  be  occupied  with  (to  do 
fenough  of)  business.  Ter. 

2.  Some  verbs  of  desire,  emotion,  or  feeling,  like  adjectives  of  the  same 
meaning  (399,  I.,  1) : 

Cupiunt  tul,  they  desire  you.  Plaut.  Tul  testimonil  veritus,  fearing  your 
testimony.  Cic.  AnimI 3  pendeO,  I  am  uncertain  in  mind.  Cic.  Discrucior 
animl,  /  am  troubled  in  spirit.  Plaut.  Te  angis  animl,  you  make  yourself 
anxious  in  mind.  Plaut.  Desipere  mentis,  to  be  foolish  in  mind,  or  mistaken 
in  opinion.  Plaut. 

8.  A  few  verbs  denoting  mastery  or  participation,  like  adjectives  of  the 
same  meaning  (399,  I.,  3),potior,t  adiplscor,  regno  : 

Siciliae  potltus  est,  he  became  master  of  Sicily.  Nep.  Rerum  adeptus  est,  ht 
obtained  the  power.  Tac.  Regnavit  populorum,  Tie  icas  king  of  the  peoples.  Hor. 

4.  In  the  poets,  a  few  verbs 5  take  the  Genitive,  instead  of  the  Ablative  of 
Separation  or  Cause  (413) : 

Abstinere  Irarum,  to  abstain  from  anger.  Hor.  Laborum  decipitur,  he  it 
beguiled  of  his  labors.  Hor.  Desine  querelarum,  ceatefrom  complaints.  Hor. 
Desistere  pugnae,  to  desist  from  the  battle.  Verg.  Eum  culpae  liberare,  to 
free  him  from  blame  (i.  e.,  to  acquit  him).  Liv.  Miriiri  laborum,  to  admire 
because  of  toilt.  Verg.  DamnI  InfectI  promittere,  to  give  surety  in  mew  of 
expected  damage.  Cic. 

NOTE. — For  the  Genitive  of  Gerund*  and  Gerundive*,  see  543,  I.;  644. 

SECTION    VII. 

ABLATIVE. 

411.  The  LATIN  ABLATIVE  performs  the  duties  of  three 
cases  originally  distinct :  * 

I.  The  ABLATIVE  PROPER,  denoting  the  relation  FROM  : 

Expulsus  est  patrid,  he  was  banished  FROM  HIS  COUNTRY.   Cic. 

1  Transitives  of  this  class  of  course  admit  the  Accusative  with  the  Genitive. 
3  See  481,  II. 

'  Animl  in  such  instances  is  probably  a  Locative  in  origin,  as  anlmls  it  used  in  the 
same  way  in  the  plural.  Bee  foot-note  on  animl,  399,  III.,  1. 

•  Potior  takes  the  Genitive  regularly  when  it  means  to  reduce  to  subjection. 

•  As  abstineO,  dectpio,  detinO,  desists,  levO,  libero,  etc. :  mJror,  etc. 

•  These  three  cases,  still  recognized  in  the  Sanskrit,  originally  had  distinct  forms 
bat  in  the  Latin,  under  the  influence  of  phonetic  change  and  decay,  theae  forms  have 


218  ABLA1IVE, 

II.  The  INSTRUMENTAL,  denoting  the  relation  WITH,  BY  : 

S5l  omnia  luce  collustrat,  the  sun  illumines  all  things  WITH  ITS  LIGHT.   Cic, 

III.  The  LOCATIVE,  denoting  the  relation  IN,  AT: 

Si  oppido  tenet,  he  keeps  himself  IN  THE  TOWN.   Cic. 

I.  ABLATIVE  PROPER. 
RULE  XXI.— Place  from  which. 

412.  The  PLACE  FKOM  WHICH  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative: 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex  : 

Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  FROM  THE  CITY.  Caes.  De  for6,  from 
<hefo)-um.  Cic.  Ex  Africa,  from  (out  of)  Africa.  Liv. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  without  a  preposition :  * 

PlatSnem  Alhenls  arcesslvit,  he  summoned  Plato  FROM  ATHENS.  Nep. 
Fugit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.  Cic. 

1.  Many  names  of  islands,  and  the  Ablatives  domo  and  rure,  are  used 
like  names  of  towns : 

Domo  profugit,  he  fled  FKOM  "JOME.  Cic.  Dllo  proficiscitur,  he  proceed* 
FROM  DELOS.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  places  not  towns  is  sometimes  used  without  a  jtrepo- 
fition,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Cadere  nubibus,  to  fall  FROM  THE  CLOUDS.  Verg.  Labi  equo,  to  fall  FROM  A 
HORSE.  Hor. 

k  3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  used  with  names  of  towns,  especially 
for  emphasis  or  contrast  : 

Ab  Arded  Eomam  venerunt,  they  came  FROM  ARDEA  to  Rome.   Liv. 

NOTE.— The  preposition  is  generally  used  when  the  vicinity,  rather  than  th*  town 
itself,  is  meant : 

Discessit  a  Brundisid,  he  departed  from.  Brwidisiwm  (i.  e.,  from  the  port).  Caes. 

RULE  yVHt — Separation,  Source,  Cause. 

413.  Separation,  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition : 

SEPARATION. — Caedem  a  vobls  dSpello,  7  ward  off  slaughter  FROM  YOU. 
Cic.  Hunc  a  tuls  arls  arcebis,  you  will  Jceep  this  one  FROM  YOUR  ALTARS. 

become  Identical,  and  their  uses  have  been  blended  in  a  single  case  called  the  Ablative 
On  the  general  subject  of  the  Ablative  and  its  «««,  see  Merguet,  pp.  109-117;  Delbruck 
Hubschmann,  pp.  82-106;  Holzweissig,  pp.  28  and  75;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  494-571;  Eoby 
'I.,  pp.  68-115. 

1  This  was  the  original  construction  for  all  places  alike. 


ABLATIVE.  219 

Uic.  Expulsus  est  patriot,  he  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic.  Urbem 
commeatu  prlvavit,  he  deprived  the  city  of  supplies.  Nep.  C8natu  desti- 
terunt,  they  desisted  from  the  attempt.  Caes.  Vagina  eripe  ferrum,  draw 
your  sword  from  its  scabbard.  Verg. 

SOURCE. — Hoc  audivl  de  parente  me6,  I  heard  this  FROM  MY  FATHER.  Cic. 
OriundT  ab  Sablnls,  descended  FROM  THE  SABINES.  Liv.  Statua  ex  aerf 
facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Abiete  puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir 
Verg.  Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

CAUSE. — Ars  Militate  laudatur,  an  art  is  praised  BECAUSE  OF  ITS  USEFUL- 
NESS. Cic.  Lacrimo  gaudio,  I  weep  FOR  (on  account  of)  JOY.  Ter.  Vestrft 
hoc  causft  volebam,  I  desired  this  on  your  account.  Cic.  Rogatu  veneram,  / 
had  come  by  request.  Cic.  Ex  vulnere  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound. 
Cic.  Aeger  erat  vulneribus,  he  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds.  Nep. 

NOTK  I.—  Transitive  Verbs  admit  an  Accusative  with  the  Ablative;  see  examples. 

NOTK  2. — The  preposition*  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ablative  of  Separation 
•n<l  Source  are  d,  ab,  de,  e,  ex,  and  with  the  Ablative  of  Cause,  de,  e,  ex. 

NOTE  8.— With  the  Ablative  of  Separation  the  preposition  is  more  freely  used  when 
the  separation  is  focal  and  literal  than  when  It  is  figurative :  de  ford, '  from  the  forum  '; 
02  Asifi,  'out  of  Asia1;  but  le/oa/re  inetu,  'to  relieve  from  fear';  condtu  desistere, ' to 
desist  from  the  undertaking.' 

NOTE  4.— For  the  Genitine  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation,  see  41O,  V.,  4; 
and  for  the  Dative  similarly  used,  see  385,  9. 

414.  The  ABLATIVE  OP  SEPARATION  designates  that  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  generally 
used  without  a  preposition  in  the  following  situations : 

I.  With  verbs  meaning  to  relieve,  deprive,  need,  be  without:1 

Leva  me  hoc  onere,  relieve  me  OF  THIS  BURDEN.  Cic.  Vinclis  exsolvere,  to 
release  FROM  CHAINS.  Plaut.  Molestia  expedire,  to  relieve  of  trouble.  Cic. 
Militem  praedii  fraudare,  to  defraud  the  soldiery  of  booty.  Liv.  Non  egeO 
mediclna,  I  do  not  need  a  remedy.  Cic.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fault. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  413. 

II.  With  moved  in  special  expressions:2 

Slgnum  movere  locd,  to  move  the  standard  FROII  THE  PLACE.   Cic. 

III.  With  adjectives  meaning  free  from,  destitute  of :* 

Animus  liber  curd,  a  mind  free  FROM  CARK.   Cic.    Expers  metu,  rree  FBOK 
ri.\i:.    Cic.     Urbs  nuda  pracsidio,  a  city  dextitute  of  defence.   Cio. 
NOTK.— For  a  similar  use  of  the  Genitive,4  see  309, 1.,  8. 

IV.  With  opus  and  usua,  meaning  need: 

1  As  expedio,  eaconero,  levfi,  relevo,  llbero,  relates,  xolvO,  abtolvo,  exsotvO ;  evuo, 
fraiido,  nftdo,  orbo,  upolio,  priro,  etc. 

*  A*  in  movere  foco,  movere  xenutu,  movere  tribft,  movfre  vextigio. 

1  A  or  ab  is  generally  used  with  names  of  persons  and  lometimes  with  other  words. 

4  Eglnua,  indigux,  Hterilin.  and  some  others  are  freely  used  with  the  Genitive:  BW 
399, 1.,  8 


220  ABLATIVE. 

Auctoritdte  tud  nobls  opus  est,  we  need  (there  is  to  us  a  need  of)  TOVB 
AUTHORITY.  Cic.  Usus  est  tu&  mihl  opera,  I  need  your  AID.  Plaut. 

NOTE  1.— In  most  other  instances  a  preposition  accompanies  the  Ablative  of  Separa- 
tion, though  often  omitted  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose. 

NOTE  2.— Opus  est  and  ftsus  est  admit  the  Dative  of  the  person  with  the  Ablative  of 
the  thing;  see  examples. 

NOTE  3. — With,  opus  and  usus,  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  a  perfect  participle,  or. 
with  OJHIX,  a  noun  and  a  participle : 

Cdnsulto  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail.  Opus  fuit  Hirtio  conventC 
there  was  need  of  meeting  Hirtius.  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — With  opus  est,  rarely  with  fisus  e#t,  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted— 

1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative  : 

Dux  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  a  leader,  or  a  leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity)  for  ut 
Cic.  Temporis  opus  eat,  there  is  need  of  time.  Li v.  Opus  est  cibum,  there  is  need  of 
food.  Plaut 

2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Supine : 

Opus  est  te  valere,  it  is  necessary  that  you  be  well.  Cic.  Opus  est  ut  lavem,  it  is 
necessary  for  me  to  bathe  (that  I  bathe).  Plaut.  Dictu  est  opus,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
told.  Ter. 

415.  The  ABLATIVE  OP  SOURCE  more  commonly  takes  a  prepo- 
sition ;  see  examples  under  413.  It  includes  agency,  parentage, 
material,  etc. 

I.  The  agent  or  author  of  an  action  is  designated  by  the  Ablative  with 
a  or  ab : 

Occlsus  est  a  Thfebanls,  he  was  slain  by  the  Tkebans.  Nep.  Occidit  a  fortl 
Achille,  he  was  slain  (lit.,  fell)  by  brace  Achilles.  Ov. 

1.  The  Ablative  without  a  preposition  may  be  used  of  a  person,  regarded 
not  as  the  author  of  the  action,  but  as  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected  : 

Coraua  Numidw  •  firmat,  he  strengthens  the  wings  WITH  NUMIDIANS.   Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  Accusative  with  per  may  be  used  of  the  person  through  whose  agency 
the  action  is  effected : 

Ab  Oppianico  per  Fabricios '  fectum  est,  it  was  accomplished  by  Oppianicus 

THROUGH  THE    AGENCY   OF  THE   FABRICII.    Cic. 

NOTE  2. — For  the  Dative  of  Agent,  see  388. 

2.  When  anything  is  personified  as  agent,  the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab  may 
be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons : 

Vinci  a  voluptate,  to  be  conquered  by  pleasure.  Cic.  A  fortuna  datam  oc- 
casiOnem,  an  opportunity  furnished  by  fortune.  Nep. 

II.  PERFECT  PARTICIPLES  denoting  parentage  or  birth — -genitw,  ndfus, 
ortus,  etc. — generally  take  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition : 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic.  Tantalo  prdgnatus,  descended  from  Tan- 
talus. Cic.  Parentibus  natl  humilibus,  born  of  humble  parents.  Cio. 

1  Here  note  the  distinction  between  the  Ablative  with  ab  (ab  Oppianico),  denoting 
the  author  of  the  action,  the  Accusative  with  per  (per  Fabricios),  the  person  through 
whose  agency  the  action  was  performed,  and  the  Ablative  alone  (Jfumidis),  the  meant 
of  the  action. 


ABLATIVE.  221 

NOTE.— In  designating  REMOTE  ANCESTRY,  «  or  ub  is  generally  used;  but  after  nattu 
»nd  ortmi,  the  Ablatives  familid,  genere,  loco,  and  ittirpe,  when  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, omit  the  preposition  : 

Oriundl  ab  Sabinis,  devcended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  OrtI  ab  GennanTs,  sprung 
from  the  Ger moats.  Cues.  Nobiligenere  natus,  born  of  a  noble  family .  SalL 

III.  With  the  ABLATIVE  OF  MATERIAL,  e  or  ex  is  generally  used,  though 
often  omitted,  especially  in  poetry : 

Status  ex  acre  facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Pocula  ex  auro,  cupf 
of  gold.  Cic.  Acre  cav6  clipeus,  a  shield  of  concave  bronze.  Verg.  Abiet» 
puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir.  Verg. 

NOTB  1.— A  special  use  of  the  Ablative,  kindred  to  the  above,  is  seen  with  /acio,  fiO, 
and  sum  in  such  expressions  as  the  following : 

Quid  hoc  nomine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  T  Cic.  Quid  HIS  ftot, 
what  will  become  of  him  t  Cic.  Quid  tS  futuram  est,  what  will  become  of  you  t  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— The  Dative  or  the  Ablative  with  d&  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense : 

Quid  huic  bomini  facias,  >chat  are  you  to  do  with  (or  to)  this  man  t  Cic.  Quid  de 
t5  futurum  est,  what  will  become  of  you  T  Ofc. 

416.  The  ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE  is  generally  used  without  a  prepo- 
sition.1 It  designates  that  by  reason  of  which,  because  of  which,  in 
accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done,  and  is  used  both  with 
verbs  and  with  adjectives  ;  *  see  examples  under  413. 

I.  CACSE  is  sometimes  denoted — 

1)  By  the  Ablative  with  a%ab,  de,  e,  ex,  prae : 

Ab  eadem  superbia*  non  venire,  not  to  come  because  of  the  same  haughti- 
ness. Liv.  Ex  vulnere s  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound.  Cic.  Ex 
Snvidia  labOrare,  to  suffer  from  unpopularity.  Cic.  Nfln  prae  lacrimls  scrt- 
bere,  not  to  write  in  consequence  of  tears.  Cic. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  ob,  per,  propter: 

Per  aetatem  inutil&s,  iiseless  because  of  (lit.,  through)  their  age.  Caes.  In 
oppidum  propter  timftrem  sese  recipiunt,  they  betake  themselves  into  the  city 
on  account  of  their  f  tar.  Caea. 

NOT*  1.— With  transitive  verbs  the  motive  which  prompts  the  action  is  often  ex 
pressed  by  the  Ablutire  with  a  perfect pawive participle: 

BegnT  cupidltute  4  inducing  conjQratlonem  fecit,  Influenced  by  the  detAre  of  riding . 
h»  formed  a  conspiracy.  Caes. 

NOTB  2.— That  in  accordance  with  which  anything  Is  done  Is  often  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  with  lot  ex: 

1  The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  very  far  removed  from  the  original  meaning  of  the  Abla- 
tive, and  indeed  in  some  of  its  u-cs  was  probably  derived  from  the  Instrumental  Abla- 
tire;  see 4 18. 

2  This  includes  such  Ablatives  as  meo  Judic{d,  in  accordance  with  my  opinion ;  med 
tentenlid,  jwmfi,  impuhft,  monitu,  etc.;  cauva,  gratia;  also  the  Ablative  with  de- 
tipio,  doles,  eaejtilit),  etvtufto,  yaudeo,  laborO^  lacrlmo,  laetor,  triumpho,  etc. 

'  See  note  2,  foot-note. 

4  Here  cupiditate  mutt  b«  construed  with  inductun,  yet  It  really  expresses  the  caust 
of  the  action,  fecit. 


222  ABLATIVE. 

R6s  eas  foedere  repetuntur,  restitution  is  demanded  IN  ACCORDANCE  -WITH  ran 
TREATY.  Liv.  Digs  «e  praeceptls  tuls  ftctus,  a  day  passed  IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  TOO 
PREOBPT8.  Clc.  Ex  veritate  aestimare,  to  estimate  in  accordance  with  the  truth  Cic. 
Ex  auctoritiite  >  senatus  confirmare,  to  ratify  on  the  authority  of  the  senate.  Liv. 

RULE  XXIII.    Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

417.  Comparatives  without  QUAM  are  followed  by  the 
Ablative  : a 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,1  nothing  is  more  lovely  THAN  VIRTUE.  Cic. 
Quid  est  melius  bonitate,3  what  is  better  THAN  GOODNESS  ?  Cic.  Sclmus  s<5- 
lem  majOrem  esse  terra,3  we  know  thai  the  sun  is  larger  than  the  earth.  Cic. 
Amicitia,  qua  nihil  melius  habemus,  friendship,  than  which  we  have  nothing 
better.  Cic.  Lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit,  nothing  dries  sooner  than  a  tear. 
Cic.  PotiSrem  Ira  salutem  habet,  he  regards  safety  as  belter  than  anger.  Liv. 

1.  COMPARATIVES  WITH  QUAM  are  followed  by  the  Nominative,  or  by  the 
case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimatur,  Ireland  is  considered  smaller 
than  BRITAIN.  Caes.  Agris  quam  urbi  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the  country 
than  TO  THE  CITY.  Liv. 

NOTK  1. — The  construction  with  quam  is  the  ftill  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an 
abbreviation.  The  Ablative  is  freely  used  for  yuam  with  a  Subject  Nominative  or  Sub- 
ject Accusative — regularly  so  for  quam  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative  of  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule.  In  other  cases  quam  is  retained 
in  the  best  prose,  though  sometimes  omitted  in  poetry. 

NOTE  2. — After  plan,  minus,  amplius,  or  fongius,  in  expressions  of  number  and 
quantity,  quam  is  often  omitted  without  influence  upon  the  construction;4  sometimes 
also  after  major,  minor,  etc. : 

Tecum  plus  annum  vlxit,  he  lived  with  you  more  than,  a  year.  Cic.  Minus  duo 
milia,  le*x  than  tico  thousand.  Liv. 

NOTE  3.— Instead  of  the  Ablative  after  a  comparative,  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as 
ante,  prae,  praeter,  or  supra,  is  sometimes  used  : 

Ante  alios  Immanior,  more  momtrous  than  (before)  the  others.  Verg. 

NOTE  4. — Ai.ius,  involving  a  comparison,  other  than,  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Ablative . 

1  These  and  similar  Ablatives  with  prepositions  show  the  transition  from  nource  to 
cause,  and  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  was  developed  from  the  former.  The 
Ablative  with  the  preposition  seems  in  general  to  retain  something  of  the  idea  of  source. 

'  This  Ablative  furnishes  the  standard  of  comparison— that  from  which,  one  ztarttt. 
Thus,  if  virtue  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  what  is  lovely,  nothing  is  more  so.  This  Abla- 
tive is  sometimes  explained  as  instrumental  (418),  but  that  view  is  controverted  by  a 
•imilar  use  of  the  Greek  Qenitive,  which  does  not  contain  the  instrumental  Ablative,  and 
of  the  Sanskrit  Ablative,  which  is  often  distinct  from  the  instrumental. 

s  Virtute  =  quam  virtus ;  bonitate  =  quam  bonitas  ;  terra  =  quam  terrarr  '§c. 
MM). 

4  So  in  expressions  of  age  :  ndtus  plus  trlgintd  annfm, '  having  been  born  more  thai 
thirty  years.  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by  major  trlgintA  annos  ndius, 
major  trlgintd  annls,  major  quam  trlgintd  annorum,  or  major  trigintd  annorum. 


ABLATIVE.  223 

Quaerit  all*  his,  he  seeks  other  things  than  these.  Plant  AHui  sapiente,  other  than 
1  wise  man.  Hor. 

NOTE  5. — Quam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  Ablatives— oplnione,  «p«, 
aequo,  jtistd,  solit<">,  etc. — are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses : 

Minor  caedes  quain  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to  the  vic- 
tory. Liv.  Serins  spe  venit,  he  came  later  than  was  hoped  (than  hope).  Liv.  Plus 
aequo,  more  than  is  fair.  Cic. 

2.  With  Comparatives,  the  MEASURE  OF  DIFFERENCE,'  the  amount  b> 
which  one  thing  surpasses  another,  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Hibernia  dimidio  minor  quam  Britannia,  Ireland  smaller  BY  ONE  HALF  than 
Britain.  Caes. 

II.  INSTBUMENTAL  ABLATIVE. 

418.  The  Instrumental  Ablative  denotes  both  Accom- 
paniment and  Means.9 

RULE  XXIV.  -Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

419.  The  Ablative  is  used— 

I.  To  denote  ACCOMPANIMENT.     It  then  takes  the  prepo- 
sition cum : 

Vivit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  WITH  BALBUS.  Cic.  Cum  gladils  stant,  they 
stand  with  swords  (i.  e.,  armed  WITH  swords).  Cic. 

II.  To  denote  CHARACTERISTIC  or  QUALITY.     It  is  then 
modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

Summa  virtttte  adul6sc6ns,  a  youth  OF  THE  HIGHEST  VIRTDE.  Caes.  QuI- 
dam  magnO  capite,  Ore  rubicundo,  magnis  pedibus,  a  co-lain  one  with  a 
large  head,  with  a  red  face,  and  with  large  feet.  Plaut.  Catilina  ingeniO 
maid  fuit,  Catiline  was  a  man  of  a  bad  spirit.  Sail.  UrI  sunt  specie1  taurl, 
the  urus  is  (lit.,  the  uri  art)  of  the  appearance  of  a  bull.  Caes. 

NOTE.— The  Ablative,  when  used  to  denote  characteristic  or  quality,  may  be  called 
either  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  the  AMaUve  of  Characteristic. 

III.  To  denote  MANNER."    It  then  takes  the  preposition 
cum.  or  is  modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

1  See  423. 

"  The  idea  of  mean*  was  probably  developed  from  that  of  accompaniment,  as  seen 
in  such  expressions  as  cum  omnibus  copies  sequitur, '  he  pursues  with  all  his  forces' — 
accompaniment,  which  readily  suggests  means,  as  he  employs  his/wc«*  as  means; 
equls  werunt,  'they  went  with  horses' — accompaniment  and  means.  Some  scholars 
have  conjectured  that  originally  accompaniment  and  means  were  expressed  by  separata 
case-forms,  but  of  this  there  seems  to  be  little  proof 

3  Note  the  close  connection  between  these  three  uses  of  the  Ablative— the  first  desig- 
nating an  attendant  person  or  thing — with  Balbus,  with  swords;  the  second,  an  at- 
tendant quality— a  youth  with  (attended  by)  the  highest  virtue ;  the  third,  ao  attend' 


224  ABLATIVE. 

Cum  virtute  vlxit,  he  lived  VIRTUOUSLY.  Cic.  Summa  vl  proelium  com 
mlserunt,  they  joined  battle  WITH  THE  GREATEST  VIOLENCE.  Nep.  DuObus 
modls  fit,  it  is  done  in  two  ways.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Ablative  of  manner  sometimes  takes  cum  even  when  modified  by  an 
adjective : 

Magnu.  cum,  curd  scripsit,  he  uvote  WITH  GREAT  CABS.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — But  the  Ablative  of  a  few  words  is  sometimes  used  without  cum,  evea 
fben  unattended  by  an  adjective,  as  jure,  'rightly1;  injurid,  'unjustly';  ordine,  'in 
an  orderly  manner';  ratione,  'systematically1 ;  xilentio,  'in  silence,1  etc.1 

NOTE  8. — Per,  with  the  Accusative,  sometimes  denotes  MANNER  :  per  vim,  'violent- 
ly 1 ;  per  liidum,  *  sportively.' 

1.  On  the  ABLATIVE  OF  ACCOMPANIMENT,  observe — 

1)  That  cum  is  often  omitted — (1)  especially  when  the  Ablative  is  qualified 
by  an  adjective,  and  (2)  &fterjungd,  misceo,  and  their  compounds : 

Ingentl  exercitu  profectus  est,  he  set  out  with  a  large  army.  Liv.  Im 
probitas  scelere  jflncta,  depravity  joined  with  crime.  Cic. 

2)  That  the  Ablative  with  cum  is  often  used  of  hostile  encounters  : 

Cum  Gallls  certare,  to  fight  with  the  Gauls.  Sail.  Noblscum  hostes  con- 
tenderunt,  the  enemy  contended  with  us.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Dative  with  verbs  denoting  union  or  contention,  see  385,  4,  8). 

2.  On  the  DESCRIPTIVE  ABLATIVE,  as  compared  with  the  DESCRIPTIVE 
GENITIVE,  observe — 

1)  That  in  descriptions  involving  size  and  number,  the  Genitive  is  used; 
see  examples  under  396,  V. 

2)  That  in  most  descriptions  involving  <xternal  characteristics,  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  like,  the  Ablative  is  used,  as  in  the  second  and  fourth  examples 
under  419,  II. 

3)  That  in  other  instances  either  case  may  be  used. 

4)  That  the  Ablative,  like  the  Genitive,  may  be  used  either  with  nouns, 
as  in  the  first  and  second  examples  under  419,  II.,  or  with  verbs  in  the  predi- 
cate, as  in  the  other  examples. 

RULE  XXV.— Ablative  of  Means. 

420.  INSTRUMENT  and  MEANS  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive: 

Cornibus  tauri  sS  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  WITH  THEIR  HORNS. 
Cic.  Gloria,  diicitur,  lie  is  led  BY  GLORY.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat, 
(he  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.  Cic.  Lacte  vlvunt,  they  live  upon 
milk.  Caes  Tellus  saucia  vomeribus,  the  earth  turned  (wounded)  with  tht 
ploughshare.  Ovid. 

ant  circumstance — to  live  with  virtue,  virtuously.    Compare  cum  Salbo  vlvere  and 
turn  virtute  vltere. 

1  But  perhaps  most  Ablatives  which  never  take  cum  are  best  explained  at  the  Abla- 
tive of  caute — as  lege,  'according  to  law';  c?m#uetudine,  'according  to  custom';  con- 
tilid, '  on  purpose.'  etc. 


ABLATIVE.  225 

Nor*. — This  Ablative  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  v erbs  and  with 
Kfjectives. 

1.  The  following  expressions  deserve  notice : 

1)  Quadraginta  hostiis  sacrificare,  to  sacrifice  with  forty  victims.  Liv. 
Facere  vitula,  to  mate  a  sacrifice  of  (lit.,  WITH)  a  female  calf.  Verg. 

2)  Fidibus  cantare,  to  play  upon  a  stringed  instrument.   Cic.     Pilil  ludere 
to  pin y  at  ball  (lit.,  WITH  TJJK  BALL).    Hor. 

3)  Aurelia  via  proficlscl,  to  set  out  by  the  A'trelian  way.    Cic.    Eodem 
itinere  ire,  to  go  by  the  same  road.    Liv.     Esquilina  porta  ingredl,  to  enter  by 

he  Esguiline  gate.   Liv. 

4)  Virtute  praeditur  possessed  qf  virtue.   Cic.     Legiones  pulchrls  armls 
praeditaa,  legion*  furnished  with  bt'iutiful  arms.   Plaut. 

2.  AdficiO  with  the  Ablatice  forms  a  very  common  circumlocution :  honor* 
ndjicere  =  honorare,  to  honor  ;  admimtione  adficere  —  admirarl,  to  admire  ;  pot- 
nd  adficere  =  punire,  to  punish,  etc  : 

Omnes  laetitia  adficit,  he  gladdens  all.   Cic. 

RULE  XXVI.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions.1 

421.  The  Ablative  is  used — 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimls  rebus  fruimur  et  Qtimur,  vie  enjoy  and  use  VERY  MANY  THINGS. 

Cic.     Magna  est  praeda  potltus,  he  obtained  OREAT  BOOTY.   Nep.     Lacte  et 
carne  vescebantur,  they  lived  upon  milk  and  flesh.   Sail 

II.  With  VERBS  and  ADJECTIVES  OF  PLENTY: 

Villa  abundat  lade,  cfaeS,  melle ;  the  villa  abounds  IN  MILK,  CHEESE,  and 
HONEY.  Cic.  Urbs  referta  eopils,  a  city  filled  WITH  SCPPLIES.  Cic.  VirtQte 
praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic.  Deus  boms  explCvit  mundum,  God 
has  JUled  th?  world  with  blessings.  Cic. 

III.  With  dlgnus,  indignus,-  and  contontus : 

Dlgnl  sunt  amlcitid,  they  are  worthy  OF  FRIENDSHIP.  Cic.  Vir  patre 
diftnus,  a  man  worthy  OF  HIS  FATHER.  Cic.  HonOre  indlgnissimus,  most  un- 
worthy of  honor.  Cic.  Natura  parvo  contenta,  nature  content  irith  little  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Transitive  verbs  of  Plenty 3  take  the  Accusative  and  Ablative: 

Armls  naves  onerat,  he  loads  the  ship*  with  arms.  Sail.  See  also  the  last 
example  under  421,  II. 

NOTE  2. — Diynor,  as  a  Pfissive  verb  meaning  'to  be  deemed  worthy,' 

1  This  Ablative  is  n-adily  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  mean*:  thus,  i'itor,  'I  use,1  *  I 
serve  myself  by  mean*  of;  fnwr,  '  I  enjoy,'  'I  delight  mysdf  with"1;  rf*cvr,  'I  feej 
uiwn,'  '  I  feed  myself  icit/i,'  etc. 

a  The  nature  of  the  Ablative  with  dlgnwi  and  intllgnim  is  somewhat  uncertain.  Ol 
•  tytnoloLric:il  grounds  it  is  explained  as  inxtrwrnental ;  see  Delbruck,  p.  72;  Corssen 
1  Krit.  Beitr.,'  p.  47. 

3  Transitive  verbs  of  plenty  mean  'to  fill,'  'to  furnish  with,'  etc.,  at  vwnulo,  aom 
pteo,  impleO,  inibuO,  inntruO,  onero.  i)rni>,  etc. 


226  ABLATIV1L 

takes  the  Ablative ;  but  as  a  Deponent  verb  meaning  '  to  deem  worthy,'  used 
only  in  poetry  and  lato  prose,  it  takes  the  Accusative  and  Ablative : 

Honore  dlgniiti  sunt,  they  have  been  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Cic.  Me 
dlgnor  honOre,  /  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor.  Verg. 

NOTE  8. — Dlgnm  and  indignm  occur  with  the  Genitive : 

Dignus  saliitis,  worthy  of  safety.  Plant.  Indignus  avorum,  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors. Verg. 

NOTE  4. — Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor,  originally  transitive,  are  occa- 
sionally so  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  dun  is  passive  in  sense.  Ct»r 
admits  two  Ablatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing : 

MC  ntetur  patre,  he  icill  find  (use)  me  a  father.  Ter. 

NOTE  6.— For  the  Genitive  with  potior,  see  41O,  V.,  8.  For  the  Genitive  with  verbs 
and  adjectives  of  plenty,  and  for  the  Accusative  and  Genitive  with  transitive  verb* 
of  plenty,  sec  410,  V.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  399, 1.,  8. 

RULE  XXVII.    Ablative  of  Price. 

422.  PRICE  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

V&ndid\taurdi>a.tria.m,?ie  sold  his  country  FOR  GOLD.  Verg.  Conduxit  map- 
no  domum,  he  hired  a  house  AT  A  HIGH  PRICE.  Cic.  MultO  sanguine  Poenis 
victoria  stetit,  the  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  the  Carthaginians 
at)  much  blood.  Liv.  Qumquaginta  talentls  aestimarf,  to  be  valued  at  ffti. 
talents.  Nep.  Vile  est  vlgintl  minis,  it  is  cheap  at  twenty  minae.  Plaut. 

NOTE  1.— The  ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE  Is  used  (1)  with  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring 
letting  ;  (2)  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear;  >  (8)  of  valuing;  (4)  with  adjectives  ol 
value.1 

NOTE  2.— With  verbs  of  EXCHANGING— muto,  commute,  etc.— (1)  the  thing  received 
la  generally  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  nelling,  but  (2)  sometimes  the  thing 
given  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  buying,  or  is  put  (n  the  Ablative  with  cum  : 

Pace  bellum  mutiivit,  he  exchanged  war  FOB  PEACE.  Sail.  Exsilium  patria  mutfi- 
vtt,  he  exchanged  ms  COUNTRY  for  eac/ile.  Curt.  Cum  patriae  •aritute  gldriam  oomnau- 
tavit,  he  exchanged  love  of  country  for  glory.  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  GENITIVE  OF  PKICE,  see  4O5. 

RULE  XXVULL— Ablative  of  Difference. 

423.  The  MEASURE  OF  DIFFERENCE  is  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Un6  dii  longiSrem  m§nsem  faciunt,  they  make  the  month  ONE  DAY  lonyei 
(longer  BY  ONE  DAY).  Cic.  Bidud  m6  antecessit,  he  preceded  me  BY  TWO 
DAYS.  Cic.  S5l  multls  partibus  major  est  quam  terra,  the  sun  is  very  much 
(lit.,  BY  MANY  PARTS)  larger  than  the  earth.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  involving  a  comparison,  but  ad- 
verbs often  supply  its  place:  multum  r<>buMor,  'much  more  robust.' 

NOTE  2.— The  Ablative  of  difference  includes  the  Ablative  of  dintance  (379,  8),  MM 
the  Ablative  with  ante,  post,  and  abhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (430). 

1  At  std,  consto,  liceo,  turn,  etc. ;  cflru*.  venalis,  eto 


ABLATIVE.  227 

RULE  XXIX.— Specification. 

424.  A  noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative 
to  define  its  application  : 

Agesilaus  nomine,  non  potentate  fuit  r6x,  Agesilaus  was  king  IN  NAME, 
not  IN  POWER.  Nep.  Claudus  alters  pede,  lame  IN  ONE  FOOT.  Nep.  Mori 
bus  similes,  similar  in  character.  Cic.  ReliquOs  Gallos  virtute  praec6dunt, 
ihey  surpass  the  other  Gauls  in  courage.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— This  ABLATIVE  shows  in  what  respect  or  particular  anything  i*  true : 
thus,  king  (in  what  respect?)  in  name. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  ACCCBATIVB  OF  SPECIFICATION,  see  378. 

III.  LOCATIVE  ABLATIVE. 
RULE  XXX.— Place  in  which. 

425.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  is  denoted — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative '  with  the  preposi- 
tion in  : 

Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  IN  ITALY.  Nep.  In  nostrts  castrls, 
in  our  camp.  Caes.  In  Appia  vift,  on  the  Appian  way.  Cic. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  by  the  Locative*  if  such  a 
form  exists,  otherwise  by  the  Locative  Ablative: 

Romae  fuit,  he  was  AT  ROME.  Cic.  Corinthl  puerSs  docebat,  he  taughi 
boys  AT  CORINTH.  Cic.  Athenls  fuit,  he  was  AT  ATHENS.  Cic.  H6c  facis 
Argls,  you  do  this  at  Argos.  Hor.  Karthagine  reggs  creabantur,  kings 
were  elected  (created)  at  Carthage.  Nep.  Gadibus  vlxit,  he  lived  at  Gades. 
Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  construction  with  verbs  meaning  to  collect,  to  come  together,  and 
with  those  meaning  to  place,  see  38O,  note. 

1.  In  the  names  of  places  which  are  not  towns,  the  LOCATIVE  ABLATIVB 
is  often  used  without  a  preposition  : 

1)  When  fhe  idea  of  meanst  manner,  or  cause  is  combined  with  that  of 
place : ' 

Cnetris  sC  tenuit,  he  kept  himself  IN  CAMP.  Caes.  Aliquem  ttctfi  recipere, 
to  receive  any  one  IN  ONK'S  OWN  HOUSE.  Cic.  Proelw  caderc,  to  fall  IN  BATTLE. 
Caes.  Adulescentibus  delectart,  to  take  pleasure  in  the  young.  Cic.  SuS 

1  The  learnei  will  remember  that  the  Locatire  Abhitirt  does  not  differ  in  form  from 
•ny  other  Ahlntive;  sec  41 1. 

»  See  48,  4;  51,  8;  66,  4.  The  Locative  wa*  the  original  construction  in  all  names 
of  places. 

'  In  some  cases  place  and  meann  are  so  combined  that  it  Is  difficult  to  determine 
which  is  ».he  original  conception. 


228  ABLATIVE. 

victoria  gloriantur,  they  glory  in,  their  victory.   Caes.     Nullo  officio  assuefactl, 
trained  in  no  duty.   Caes. 

NOTE.— The  Ablative  is  generally  used  with  fido,  cmifldo,  nitor,  innltor,  and  frftun: 
Nem6  fortunae  stabilitute  confidit,  no  one  trusts  (confides  in)  the  stability  of  for- 
tune. Cic.    Sal  us  veritate  nititur,  safety  rents  upon  truth.  Cic.    Frctus  amicis,  relying 
upon  hiti  friends.  Liv. 

2)  When  the  idea  of  place  is  figurative  rather  than  literal: 
Nova  pectore  versat  consilia,  she  devises  (turns  over)  new  plans  IN  HER 
BKEAST.  Verg.  Stare  judiciis,  to  abide  BY  (stand  IN)  THE  DECISIONS.  Cic. 
Promissls  manere,  to  remain  true  to  promises  (lit.,  remain  IN).  Verg.  Pen- 
dcre  aniruis,1  to  be  perplexed  in  mind.  Cic.  Iiitiims  sensibus  angi,  to  be 
troubled  in  one's  inmost  feelings.  Cic.  Ferox  bello,  valiant  in  war.  Hor. 
Jure  perltus,  skilled  in  law.  Jic. 

2.  The  Ablatives  loco,  locis,  partc,  parliovs,  dextra,  lacva,  and  sinistra 
are  often  used  without  the  preposition.     Term  and  marl  and  Ablatives 
with  totus  are  generally  so  used. 

Aliquidfoco  ponere,  &>/>«£  anything  IN  ITS  PLACE.  Cic.  Terra  marlque,  on 
land  and  sea.  Liv.  Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.  Nep. 

NOTE  1. — The  Ablative  libro,  'book,'  generally  takes  the  preposition  when  used  of  a 
portion  of  a  work,  but  omits  it  when  used  of  an  entire  treatise  : 

In  eo  libro,  in  this  book  (referring  to  a  portion  of  the  work).  Cic.  A 116  libro,  in  an- 
other work.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — Other  Ablatives  sometimes  occur  without  the  preposition,  especially  wheL 
qualified  by  omnis,  medius,  or  universus  : 

Omnibus  oppidls,  in  all  the  toicnu.  Caes. 

NOTE  8. — In  poetry  the  Locative  Ablative  is  often  used  without  the  preposition  : 

Lucis  opacls,  in  shady  groves.  Verg.  Silvis  agrisque,  in  the  foreata  and  jifMs.  Ov. 
Tbeatris,  in  the  theatres.  Hor.  Ferre  umero,  to  bear  upon  the  shoulder.  Verg. 

3.  ABLATIVE  FOR  THE  LOCATIVE. — Instead  of  the  Locative  in  names  of 
towns  the  Ablative  is  used,  with  or  without  a  preposition — 

1)  When  the  proper  name  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  or  adjective  pronoun  : 
In  ipsa  Alexandria,8  in   Alexandria  itself.   Cic.     Longa   Alba,  at  Alba 

Longa.  Verg. 

2)  Sometimes  when  not  thus  modified : 

In  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Lavinium.  Liv. 
In  Alexandria,2  at  Alexandria.  Liv. 

NOTE. — The  following  special  construction*  deserve  notice : 

In  oppido  Citio,3  in  the  town  Citium.  Nep.  Albae,4  in  urbe  opportuna,  at  Alba,  a 
convenient  city.  Cic. 

1  In  the  singular  animl  is  generally  used,  a  Locative  probably  both  in  form  and  in 
signification;  see  p.  211,  foot-note 4. 

*  At  Alexandria  would  regularly  be  expressed  by  the  Locative,  Atexandriae. 

*  Here  Citifi  is  in  apposition  with  oppidf>,  the  usual  construction  in  such  cases,  though 
a  Genitive  limiting  oppidfi  occurs:  In  oppido  Antiechiae,  I'M  the  citij  of  Ant  lock.  Cic. 

4  A  Locative  may  thus  be  followed  by  in  urbe,  or  in  oppidf>.  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive; but  see  363,  4.  2).  Tie  preposition  in  is  sometimes  omitted. 


ABLATIVE.  229 

426.  LIKE  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  are  used— 

1.  Many  NAMES  OF  ISLANDS: 

Lesbl  vixit,  he  lived  in  Lesbos.  Nep.  Conon  Cypri  vlxit,  Conon  lived  in 
Cyprus.  Nep. 

2.  The  LOCATIVES  domi,  riirl,  humi,  militiae,  and  belli: 

Domi  mllitiaeque,  at  home  and  in  t/ie  field.  Cic.  Rurl  agere  vltam,  fa 
ipend  life  in  the  country.  Liv. 

NOTE. — A  few  other  Locatives  also  occur: 

Bomae  Numidiaeque,  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia.  Sail.  Domum  Chersonesi  habuit 
he  had  a  hoiute  in  the  Chersonevus.  Nep.  Truncum  reltquit  arGnae,1  he  left  the  body 
in  the  sand.  Verg. 

427.  SUMMARY. — The  NAMES  OF  PLACES  NOT  TOWNS  are  gen- 
erally put — 

I.  In  the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in,  to  denote  the  PLACE  TO  WHICH  : 
In  Asiam  redit,  he  returns  to  (into)  Asia.   Nep. 

II.  In  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex,  to  denote  the  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  : 
Ab  urbe  proficlscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city.   Cues. 

III.  In  the  Locative  Ablative  with  in,  to  denote  the  PLACE  AT  or  IN  WHICH  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.   Nep. 

NOTE.— For  qualifications  and  eteceptionn,  see  38O,  3  and  4:  412,  2;  425,  1  and  2. 

428.  SUMMARY. — The  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  are  put8— 
I.  In  the  Accusative,  to  denote  the  PLACE  TO  WHICH  : 
Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome.   Liv. 

I.1.  In  the  Ablative,  to  denote  the  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  : 

Ffigit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.   Cic. 

III.  In  the  Locative,  or  in  the  Locative  Ablative*  to  denote  thp  PLACK  AT 
or  IN  WHICH  : 

Corinthl  puerOs  docCbat,  he  taught  boys  <tt  Corinth.  Cic.  Gftdibus  vixit, 
he  lived  <it  Gndeg.  Cic. 

NOTB.— For  qualification!!  and  exception*,  see  380, 1 ;  412,  8;  425,  8. 

RULE  XXXI.— Time. 

429.  The  TIME  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 
Oclonisimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  IN  HIS  EIGHTIETH  YEAR.   Cic.      Vfre 

jonvenere,  Oiey  assembled  IN  THE  SPRINO.    Liv.     Natall  die  suo,  on  hi*  b'u-th- 

I  80  also  terra e  and  rictniae. 

II  This,  the  original  construction  for  nil  names  of  places,  has  been  retained  unchanged 
inly  in  the  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words.     Most  names  of  places  have  as- 
iuini-d  a  j>rr/MiK>ti<»i  with  the  Accitxatire  and  Alilntire,  and  have  substituted  the  /.wu- 
tirf  Ablntirf  with  a  prepoxition  in  place  of  the  f.ocntire ;  see  411,  III. 

3  That  is.  the  Locat\rt  is  used  if  any  such  form  exists;  if  not,  the  Locative  Ablativt 
supplies  its  place. 


230  ABLA  TIVE. 

day.  Nep.  Hieme  et  aestate,  in  winter  and  summer.  Cic.  SClis  occasu,  at 
sunset.  Caes.  Adventu  Caesaris,  on  the  arrival  of  Caesar.  Ca.es.  LudTs, 
at  the  time  of  the  games.  Cic.  VTix  decem  annls,  scarcely  in  ten  years.  Nep. 
His  vlginti  annls,  within  these  twenty  years.  Cic. 

1.  Certain  relations  of  TIME  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  in  or  de: 
In  tall  tempore,1  at  such  a  time  (i.  e.,  under  such  circumstances).   Liv.    In 

diebus  proximis  decem,1  in  the  next  ten  days.  Sail.  De  media  nocte,  in  (lit., 
from,  out  of )  th*  middle  of  the  night.  Caes. 

2.  Certain  relations  of  TIME  are  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  ad,  in, 
inter,  intra,  sub,  etc. : 

Ad  constitutam  diem,  at  the  appointed  day.  Cic.  Ad  cenam  invltare  in 
posterum  diem,  to  invite  to  dinner  for  the  next  day.  Cic.  Intra  vlginti  dies, 
within  twenty  days.  Plaut.  Inter  tot  annos,  within  so  many  years.  Cic. 
Sub  noctem,  toward  night.  Caes. 

430.  The  INTERVAL  between  two  events  may  be  denoted  by 
the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  ante  or  post : 3 

Aliquot  post  menses 3  occlsus  est,  he  was  put  to  death  some  months  after. 
Cic.  Post  dies  paucos  venit,  he  came  after  a  few  days.  Liv.  Faucis  ante 
diebus,3  a  few  days  before.  Cic.  Homerus  annis  multis  fuit  ante  Romulum, 
Homer  lived  many  years  before  Romulus.  Cic.  Paucls  diebus  post  ejus  mor- 
tem, a  few  days  after  his  death.  Cic.  Annls  qulngentls  post,^0«  hundred 
years  after.  Cic.  Quartum  post  annum  quam  redierat,  four  years  after  he 
had  returned.  Nep.  NonO  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto 
annO  quam  erat  expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  baii'ished.  Nep. 

NOTE  1. — In  these  examples  observe— 

1)  That  the  numeral  may  be  either  cardinal,  as  in  the  sixth  example,  or  ordinal,  as  in 
the  last  three.4 

2)  That  with  the  Accusative  ante  and  pout  either  precede  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
or  stand  between  them;  bat  that  with  the  Ablative  they  either  follow  both,  or  stand 
between  them.4 

3)  That0;/fl»i  may  follow  ante  and  pout,  as  in  the  seventh  example;  may  be  united 
with  them,  as  in  the  eighth,  or  may  be  used  for  poxtquam,  as  in  the  ninth. 

NOTE  2.— The  ABLATIVE  OF  THB  RELATIVE  may  be  used  for  postquam: 
QuatriduO,  quo  occlsus  est, /our  day*,  after  fie  u-as  killed.  Cic. 

1  The  Ablative  with  in  is  used  to  denote  (1)  the  circumstttncex  of  the  time,  and  (2) 
the  time  in  or  within  ichich.  In  the  second  sense  it  is  used  especially  after  numeral 
adverbs  and  in  designating  the  periods  of  life :  bin  in  die, '  twice  in  the  day ' ;  in  pueri- 
tia,  *  in  boyhood,1  etc. 

4  In  two  instances  the  Ablative  with  abhinc  is  used  like  the  Ablative  with  ante: 
Abhinc  triginta  die-bus,  thirty  days  before.  Cic. 

3  The  Accusative  after  ante  and  post  depends  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  Ablative 
U  explained  as  the  measure  of  difference  (423). 

4  Thus,  'five  years  after'  =  qulnque  tinnw  post,  or  qulnto  anno  pout;  or  pout  qu'in- 
qiie  anvo»,  or  pout  qulntwm  annum;  or  with  post  between  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
qulnqne  post  ann  ?«,  etc. 

*  Any  other  arrangement  is  rare. 


ABLATIVE.  231 

Non  3.— The  time  since  an  event  may  be  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  abhhic  01 
ante,  or  by  the  Ablative  with  ante : 1 

Abhinc  annos  trecentos  full,  he  lyeed  three  hundred  years  ago.  do.  Faucis  ant» 
iiC-bns  eriipit  ex  urbe,  he  broke  out  of  the  city  a  few  days  ago.  Cic. 

RULE  XXXII.— Ablative  Absolute.* 

431.  A  noun  and  a  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive to  add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance : 

Servi5  rSgnante  viguerunt,  tJiey  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius  (Ser- 
vius  reigning).*  Cic.  Rggibus  exactis,  consulgs  creatl  sunt,  after  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  kings,4  consul':  were  appointed.  Liv.  Equitatu  praemisso, 
subsequSbatur,  having  sent  forward  his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes.  Reg- 
num  hand  satis  prOsperum  negl6cta  religiOne,  a  reign  not  sufficiently  pros- 
perous btcnuse  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditls  rebus  omnibus  tamen 
virtus  s6  sustentare  potest,  though  all  things  are  lost,  still  virtue  is  able  to 
tustain  itself.  Cic.  Obsidibus  imperatls,  hos  Aeduls  tradit,6  having  de. 
manded  hostages,  he  delivers  them  to  the  Aedui.  Caes. 

1.  The  Ablative  Absolute,  much  more  common  than  the  English  Nomins 
tive  Absolute,  generally  expresses  the  time,  cause,  or  some  attendant  circum 
ttance  of  an  action. 

2.  This  Ablative  is  generally  best  rendered— (1)  by  a  noun  with  a  prepo- 
sition— in,  during,  after,  by,  with,  through,  etc. ;  (2)  by  an  active  participtt 
with  its  object ;  or  (3)  by  a  clause  with  when,  while,  because,  {/",  though,  etc.  ; 
see  examples  above. 

3.  A  connective  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 

Nisi  munltls  castrls,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.   Caes. 

4.  A  noun  and  an  adjective,  or  even  two  nouns,  may  be  in  the  Ablutiv* 
Absolute  :i 

1  The  Accusative  Is  explained  aa  duration  of  lime  (370),  the  Ablative  aa  measure 
of  difference  (423). 

2  This  Ablative  Is  called  absolute,  because  it  is  not  directly  dependent  for  it»  con- 
struction upon  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.    Originally  Locative,  it  was  first  used  to 
denote  nliuition  or  time,  a  meaning  from  which  its  later  uses  may  be  readily  derived 
Thus,  while  the  force  of  a  Locative  Ablative  is  apparent  In  Servio  rlgnante  and  In  rfyi- 
bun  exdctis,  it  is  recognized  without  difficulty  in  neylbctii  rfligione  as  indicating  the 
xitu<ition  or  i>tiitf.  of  thing*  In  which  the  reign  was  not  prosperous.    In  some  instances, 
however,  the  Ablative  Absolute  may  be  instrumental  or  causal. 

3  Or,  while  Semiun  was  reigmng  or  tcan  king. 

*  Or,  iifler  the  king*  were  banished. 

*  In  this  example  obsidibwt  and  /""<*  refer  to  the  same  persons.    This  is  nnunnal,  aa 
In  this  construction  the  Ablative  generally  refers  to  some  person  or  thing  not  otherwise 
mentioned  in  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs. 

'  The  first  method  of  translation  comes  nearer  the  original  Latin  conception,  but  the 
other  methods  generally  accord  better  with  the  English  idiom. 

7  This  construction  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin.  In  the  corresponding  constructions  In 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  English,  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  'to  i>«'  is  used. 


232  CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

Sereno  caelo,  when  the  sky  is  dear.  Sen.  Canlnio  consule,  in  thf  eontut, 
*hip  of  Czninius.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— An  infimttwe.  or  clause  may  be  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a  neutet 
participle  or  adjective : 

AuditO  Dariuin  movisse,  pfirgit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn  (thaf 
Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt.  Multi,  incerto  quid  vitarent, 
interierunt,  many,  uncertain  what  ttiey  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc.,  being  uncertain) 
perished.  Liv. 

NOTK  2. — A -participle  or  adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multum  certato,  pervicit,  he  conquered  after  a  luird  struggle.1  Tac. 

NOTB  S.—Quisque  or  ipse  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multis  sibi  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought,  each  for  himself.  Sail.  Causa 
ipse  prd  se  dicta  damnatur,  having  himself  advocated  his  own  cause,  he  is  con- 
demned. Liv. 

NOTK  4.— For  the  use  of  absente  and  praesentt  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  • 
plural  noun  or  pronoun,  see  438,  6,  note. 

SECTION   VIII. 

CASES    WITH    PREPOSITIONS 
RULE  XXXIII.    Cases  with  Prepositions. 

432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with 
prepositions :  * 

Ad  amlcum  scrtpsl,  I  have  written  to  a  friend.  Cic.  In  curiam,  into  the 
senate-house.  Liv.  In  Italia,  in  Italy.  Nep.  Pr6  castrfs,  before  the  camp. 

433.  The  ACCUSATIVE  is  used  with — 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circS,  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citra, 
contra,  erga,  extra,  Infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pCne,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  Qltra,  versus : 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  tit;/.  Cic.  Adversus  deos,  toward  the  gods.  Cic.  Ante 
liicem,  before  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the  council.  Cic. 
Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  this  tide  of  the  river. 
Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  muros,  within  tin 
walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  behind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum  naturam,  ac- 
cording to  nature.  Cic.  Trans  Alpes,  across  the  Alps.  Cic. 

NOTE  I. — Exadversus  (urn)  also  occurs  with  the  Accusative : 

Exad versus  eum  locum,  over  against  that  place.  Cic.    See  also  43  7. 

NOTE  2. —  Versus  (um)  and  risque,  as  adverbs,  often  accompany  prepositions,  e* 
Dually  ad  and  in  : 

Ad  Oceanum  versus,  toward  the  ocean.  Caes.  Ad  meridiem  versus,  toward  Qu. 
south.  Liv.  Usque  ad  castra  liostium,  even  to  the  eamp  of  the  enemy,  Caes. 

1  Literally,  it  having  leen  much  contested.    The  participle  is  used  impersonally 
*  On  the  general  subject  of  Propositions  and  their  Use,  see  iioby,  II-  PD-  861-466 
,  L,  pp  674-6«5;  *Cuh"«*  II., 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  233 

Now  8. — For  propius,  prosoime,  propior,  and  proximus,  with  the  Accusative,  tee 
prope,  note  2,  under  I.,  below. 

NOTE  4.— For  compounds  of  preposition*,  see  372  and  376. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Accusative  deserve  notice: 
Ad,  TO,  the  opposite  of  ab,  FROM — (1)  TO,  TOWARD,  TILL  ;  (2)  NEAB,  AT,  ON: 
vd  mi, '  to  me,'  '  near  me,'  *  at  my  house ' ;  ad  urbem,  '  to  the  city,'  '  near  the 
city ' ;  ad  dextram, '  on  the  right  * ;  ad  muUam  noctem, '  till  late  in  the  night'  •, 
ad  lucem,lti\\  daybreak';  ad  Me,  'besides  this,'  'moreover';  ad  verbitm, 
•word  for  word';  ad  hune  modum,  'after  this  manner';  ad  uUimum,  'at 
kst' ;  ad  Unum  omnes, '  all  to  a  man,' '  all  without  exception.' 

Apud,  NEAR,  AT,  BEFor.E,  IN  THE  PRESENCE  OF  :  apud  oppidum,  '  near  or 
before  the  town ' ;  apud  me, '  at  my  house ' ;  sum  apud  me,  '  I  am  at  home ' 
or '  I  am  in  my  right  mind ' ;  apud  PlaKnem,  '  in  the  works  of  Plato.' 

Ante,  BEFORE,    IN   FRONT  OF,    ABOVE,   IN  PREFERENCE  TO  '.   ante  SUOS  ailHOg, 

'  before  his  tune,'  '  too  early ' ;  ante  tempus, '  before  the  proper  time ' ;  ante 
annum, '  a  year  before ' ;  ante  urbem  conditam, '  before  the  founding  of  the 
fcity ' ;  ante  alids pulcherrimus  omnes,  'the  most  beautiful  above  all  others.' 

Circum,  circa,  circiter,4  ROUND,  AROUND,  ABOUT:  circum  forum, 
'  around  the  forum ' ;  circa  se, '  around  or  with  himself  ;  circa  eaiidem  horam, 
'  about  the  same  hour ' ;  circiter  meridiem, '  about  midday.' 

NOTE. — Circum,  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  Is  used  only  of  place ;  cirotl,  both  ol 
ptacf  and  of  time  ;  circiter,  rare  as  a  preposition,  chiefly  of  time.  They  are  all  freely 
u»ed  as  adverbs:  circum  convemre,  'to  gather  around';  circa  «*««, 'to  be  around', 
circiter  pars  quarta, '  about  the  fourth  part,' 

Cis,  citrS,,8  ON  THIS  SIDE — cis  opposed  to  trdns,  ACROSS,  ON  THE  OTHER 
SIDE  ;  cilrd  opposed  to  ultra,  BEYOND  :  cigflumen,  *  on  this  side  of  the  stream ' ; 
cis  pnttctx  dies, '  within  a  few  days';  citrd  veritatem,  'short  of  the  truth' ; 
citi-d  «uctori(s>fem, '  without  authority.' 

Contra,8  OPPOSITE  TO,  OVER  AGAINST,  AGAINST,  CONTRARY  TO  :  contrd  ed» 
regibntt,  '  opposite  to  those  regions' ;  contra,  populum, '  against  the  people ' ; 
contrd  natiirnm,  '  contrary  to  nature.* 

Erga,<  TOWARD,  TO,  AGAINST:  ergo,  pare/lift,  'toward  parents';  odium 
vrgd  Rfrmdndx,  '  hatred  to  the  Romans ' ;  ergcL  regem,  '  against  the  king.' 

Extra,  OUTSIDE,  WITHOUT,  FREE  FROM,  EXCKPT :  ertrd  pwtam,  'outside 
the  gate';  extra  culpam,  'without  fault,'  'free  from  fault';  extra  ducem, 
'  except  the  leader,'  '  besides  the  leader.' 

Infra,8  BKLOW,  UNDER,  BENEATH,  LESS  THAN,  AFTER,  LATER  THAN,  Opposed 

to  xnpra,  ABOVE  :  infrd  lunam, '  beneath  the  moon ' ;  Infra  m?,  '  below  me ' ; 
li'frd  tr'fg  peilfjt,  '  less  than  three  feet' ;  infra  Lycnrgum,  'after  Lycurgus.' 

1  For  tbe/orm  and  meaning  of  prepositions  in  composition,  see  344,  r>. 
'  These  three  forms  are  all  derived  from  circus,  'a  circle'  (L  e.,  from  its  strm) ;  (tee 
304;  307.  note  1. 

*  These  are  often  adverbs. 

*  According  to  Vanicek,  from  f  and  toe  root  reg  In  regO;  Mn  the  direction  of  (lit, 
from  the  direction  of ).    In  Tacitus,  eomo times  IK  RELATION  TO:  ergii  donnnx  mim 
+Q  relation  to  his  own  household.' 

*  l*\F*<i  ST.  \n,f er<i  parto  '  to  th«  lower  T>«rt 


334  CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

Inter,'  BETWEEN,  AMONG,  IN  THE  MIDST  OF:  inter  ttrbem  et  Tiberim,  *  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  Tiber' ;  inter  bonds,  'among  the  good ' ;  inter  inanity 
1  in  the  hands,'  '  within  reach,'  l  tangible ' ;  inter  nds,  *  between  us,'  '  in  con- 
fidence ' ;  inter  se  amdre, '  to  love  one  another ' ;  inter  se  diff'erre, '  to  differ 
from  one  another' ;  inter  paucds,  inter  pauca,  '  especially,'  '  preeminently ' ; 
inter  paucds  disertus, '  preeminently  eloquent' ;  inter  purpuram  atque  aurum, 
'  in  the  miust  of  purple  and  gold.' 

Intra,  WITHIN,  LESS  THAN,  BELOW,  opposed  to  extra,  ON  THE  OUTSIDE, 
WITHOUT  :  intra  castra,  '  within  the  camp ' ;  intra  me,  '  within  me ' ; a  intrH 
«?, '  in  his  mind '  or  '  in  their  minds ' ; s  intra  centum,  '  less  than  one  hundred ' 
intra  modum,  '  within  the  limit ' ;  intra  famam, '  below  his  reputation.' 

Ob,  BEFORE,  IN  VIEW  OF,  IN   REGARD  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  :   ob  OCuldS,  *  before 

one's  eyes ' ;  ob  stuUitiam  tuam,  '  in  view  of  your  folly,'  or  '  in  regard  to  your 
folly';  ob  hanc  rent,  'in  view  of  this  thing,'  'for  this  reason,'  'on  this  ac- 
count  * ;  quam  ob  rem, '  in  view  of  which  thing,' '  wherefore.' 

Per,4  THROUGH,  BY  THE  AID  OF  :  perforum, '  through  the  forum ' ;  per  alios, 
'through  others,'  'by  the  aid  of  others';  per  se,  'by  his  own  efforts,'  also 
'  in  himself,' '  in  itself  ;  per  metum, '  through  fear ' ;  per  aetatem, '  in  conse- 
quence of  age ' ;  per  ludum, '  sportively ' ;  per  vim, '  violently  ' ;  per  mi  licet, 
*  it  is  allowable  as  far  as  I  am  concerned '  (i.  e.,  I  make  no  opposition). 

Post,  BEHIND,  AFTER,  SINCE  :  post  montem,  '  behind  the  mountain ' ;  post 
dedicdtidnem  templl,  '  after  the  dedication  of  the  temple ' ;  pott  hominum 
wemoriam, '  since  the  memory  of  man.' 

Praeter,5  BEFORE,  ALONG,  PAST,  BY,  BEYOND,  BESIDES,  EXCEPT,  CONTRARY 
ro:  praeter  oculos,  'before  their  eyes  * ;  praeter  cram,  'along  the  coast'; 
praeter  ceterds, '  beyond  others,' '  more  than  others ' ;  praeter  haec  »  praeter-ea, 
'  besides  these  things,'  '  moreover' ;  praeter  vie, '  except  me ' ;  praeter  spem, 
'  contrary  to  expectation.' 

Prope,  propter,  NEAR,  NEAR  BY.  Prope,  NEAR;  propter  ^prope- 
tor,  a  strengthened  form  ofpropef  VERY  NEAR,  ALONGSIDE  OF,  also  IN  VIEW  OF, 
ON  ACCOUNT  OF  :  profe  hastes, '  near  the  enemy ' ;  prope  metum, '  near  to  fear,' 
'  almost  fearful ' ;  propter  mare, '  near  the  sea ' ;  propter  timdrem, '  on  account 
of  fear ' ;  propter  se,  *  on  his  own  account,'  '  on  their  own  account.' 

NOTE  \.-Prope,  as  an  adverb,  Is  sometimes  combined  with  a,  ab,  or  ad:  prope 
a  Sicilid, '  near  Sicily,'  '  not  far  from  Sicily ' ;  prope  ad  portds, '  near  to  the  gates.' 

NOTE  2. — Like  prope,  the  derivatives  propius  and  prdedme,  and  sometimes  even 
propior  and  prfxsimu/t,  admit  the  Accusative : T 

Propius  perfculum,  nearer  to  danger,  Liv.    Prflxlme'  defls,  very  near  to  tfie 


1  Formed  from  in  by  the  ending  ter,  flke  prae-Ur  from  prae  (434,  L),  prop-ter 
from  prope  (433,  I.),  aiid  xub-ter  from  sub  (435, 1.), 

*  Often  equivalent  to  in  meo  animo,  *ln  my  mind.' 

•  Sometimes,  in  his  country,  or  in  their  country. 

•  In  origin  kindred  to  the  Greek  vopa. 

*  Formed  from  prae  (434,  I.),  like  in-ter  from  in;  see  inter,  with  foot-note. 

•  See  inter,  with  foot-note. 

*  Perhaps  by  a  construction  according  to  sense,  following  the  analogy  otpropt,  thougii 
la  most  cases  a  preposition  may  readily  be  supplied 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  335 

Ctc.  Propior  montem,  nearer  to  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proxiinus  mare,  ne.are.tt  to  iht 
sea.  Caes. 

Secundum,1  FOLLOWING,  NEXT  AFTER,  NEXT  BEHIND,  ALONGSIDE  OF,  CON- 
FORMING TO,  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  FAVOR  OF  :  secundum  dram, '  behind  the  altar' ; 
tecuudum  deds,  'next  after  the  gods'  J  secundum  ludos,  'after  the  games'; 
tecundum  flu/men, '  along  the  river ' ;  secundum  naturam, '  according  to  na- 
ture,' k  following  nature ' ;  secundum  cnusam  nostrum, '  in  favor  of  our  cause.' » 

SuprS/,*  ON   THE    TOP,  ABOVE,   BEFORE,  TOO   HIGH   FOR;   Opposed   tO  illfra^ 

4ELOW :  suprd  lunam,  '  above  the  moon ' ;  suprd  hanc  memoriam,  '  before 
jur  time ' ; 4  tupra  hominem, '  too  high  for  a  man.' 

Trans,  ACROSS,  ON  THE  OTHER  SIDE,  opposed  to  cis,  ON  THIS  SIDE  :  trans 
Khenum, '  across  the  Khine ' ;  trans  Alpes,  *  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps.' 

Ultra,  BEYOND,  ACROSS,   ON  THE   OTHER  SIDE,   MORE  THAN,   LONGER  THAN, 

AFTER,  opposed  to  citrd,  ON  THIS  SIDE  :  ultra  eum  locum, '  beyond  that  place ' ; 
ultra  eum, '  beyond  him';  ultra pignus,  '  more  than  a  pledge ' ;  ultra, fidem, 
'beyond  belief,'  *  incredible' ;  uitrd  pueriles  annos, '  after  (beyond)  the  yean 
of  boyhood.' 

434.  The  ABLATIVE  is  used  with — 

A  or  ab  (abs),          absque,  cOram,  cum,          do, 

6  or  ex,  prae,  pr6,  sine,          tenus. 

Ab  nrbe,  from  th«  city.  Caes.  Coram  conventu,  in  the  pretence  of  the 
ttuembly.  Nep.  Cum  Antioch6,  with  Antiochm.  Cic.  De  forO,  from  the 
ftrum.  Cic.  Ex  Asia,  out  of  Asia.  Nep.  Sine  corde,  without  a  heart.  Cic. 

NOTE  i.— .Many  verbs  compounded  with  ab,  de,  ex,  or  nuper  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  preposition  la  often  repeated,*  or  some  other 
preposition  of  kindred  meaning  Is  used : 

Ablre  magistrate,  to  retire  from  office.  Tac.  PQgnS  excedunt,  they  retire  from  the 
battle.  Caes.  Do  vita1  dGcvdere,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  DCcC-dere  ex  Asia,  to  depart 
oiitofAirta.  Cic. 

NOTB  t.—A  and  i  are  used  only  before  consonants,  nli  and  ex  before  either  vowels  or 
consonants.  Abu  is  antiquated,  except  before  /< . 

NOTB  8.— For  cum  appended  to  the  Ablative  of  a  personal  pronoun  or  of  a  relative, 
see  184,  6,  and  187,  2. 

NOTE  4. —  Teiiun  follows  Us  case.  In  Its  origin  It  Is  the  Accusative  of  A  noun,*  and 
M  such  it  often  takes  the  Genitive : 

ColI6  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov.    LnmbSrum  tenus,  as  far.  an  the  lolnt.  C!c, 

1  Properly  the  neuter  of  ttecundut,  '  following,' '  second ' ;  but  secundu*  is  a  gerund- 
ive from  tequor,  formed  like  dlcundu*  from  d'ico  (239).  For  the  change  of  qu  to  0 
before  u  In  aec-undus  for  seytt-undut,  see  26,  foot-note. 

*  Like  the  adjective  necnndus  In  nentun  secundux, '  a  favoring  wind ' — one  that  follows 
i*  on  our  course;  fliimine  secundo,  'with  a  favoring  current'  (i.  <•.,  down  the  stream). 

*  Supra  =  nuperd  parte, '  on  the  top.' 

4  Literally ,  before  thin  memory.    For  hla  meaning  my  or  our,  see  45O,  4,  note  1. 

*  Though  in  such  cases  the  first  element  of  the  compound  is  not  strictly  a  preposi- 
tion, but  an  adverb  (344,  with  foot-note).    Thus,  In  de  rltd  dfcidere,  de  in  the  vert 
retains  its  adverbial  force,  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  preposition  Is  used  only  once. 

*  From  the  root  tan,  ten.  seen  in  ten-do,  ten-eo,  and  in  the  Greek  rtiv-u. 


236  CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

NOTE  5. — For  the  Ablative  with  or  without  (M,  aa  used  with  facif,  />.6,  and  turn,  go« 
415,  III.,  note, 

L  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Ablative  deserve  notice : 

A,  ab,1  abs,  FKOM,  BY,  IN,  ON,  ON  THT  SIDE  OF.  1.  Of  Place  ;  FROM,  ON, 
ON  THE  SIDE  OF  :  d  ffallid,  *  from  Gaul' ;  ab  ortu,  'from  the  east';  a  f route, 
'  in  front '  (lit.,  from  the  front) ;  a  tergd,  '  in  the  rear ' ;  ab  Sequanis, '  on  the 
side  toward  the  Sequani.'  2.  Of  Time  ;  FROM,  AFTER  :  ab  fiord  tertid,  '  from 
the  third  hour';  a  puerd,  'from  boyhood';  ab  coJiort&tione,  'after  exhort- 
ing.' 3.  In  other  relations  ;  FROM,  BY,  IN,  AGAINST  :  a  poend  liber, '  free  from 
punishment';  missut  db  Syrdcusis,  'sent  by  the  Syracusans';  ub  equitdtu 
ftrmus,  '  strong  in  (lit., from)  cavalry' ;  ab  animd  aeger,  'diseased  in  mind ' ; 
ab  els  defendere,  *  to  defend  against  (from)  them ' ;  esse  ab  aliquo,  '  to  be  on 
one's  side ' ;  a  nobi°, '  in  our  interest ' ;  servus  dpedibus.  '  a  footman.' 

NOTE.— Absqut,  rare  in  classical  prose,  is  found  chiefly  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Chun,*  WITH,  in  most  of  its  English  meanings :  cum  patre  habitdre,  l  to 
live  with  one's  father';  Caesar  cum  quinque  legionibus, ' Caesar  with  five 
legions ' ;  consul  cum  summd  imperio, '  the  consul  with  supreme  command ' ; 
servus  cum  teld, '  a  slave  with  a  weapon,'  '  an  armed  slave ' ;  cum  prlmd  luce, 
'  with  the  early  dawn,-  '  at  the  early  dawn ' ;  consentlre  cum  aliqud,  '  to  agree 
with  any  one' ;  cum  Caesare  agere,  '  to  tr?at  with  Caesar' ;  cum  aliquo  dimi- 
cdre,  'to  contend  with  any  one';  multl*  cum  lacrimia,  'with  many  tears' ; 
cirni  virtue,  '  virtuously ' ;  cum  eb  ut,  or  cum  eo  quod, '  with  this  condition 
that,'  'on  condition  that.*  See  also  419,  III. 

De,  DOWN  FROM,  FROM,  OF.  1.  Of  Place  ,*  DOWN  FROM,  FROM  :  di  caeld, 
'  down  from  heaven ' ;  de  ford, '  from  the  forum ' ;  de  mdjoribus  audlre,  '  to 
hear  from  one's  elders.'  2.  Of  Time ;  FKOM,  OUT  OF,  DURING,  IN,  AT,  AFTER: 
diprandio, '  from  breakfast ' ;  de  die, '  by  day,'  '  in  the  course  of  the  day ' ;  di 
tertid  vigilid, '  during  the  third  watch' ;  de  media  node, '  at  about  midnight.' 
8.  In  other  relations;  FROM,  OF,  FOR,  ON,  CONCERNING,  ACCORDING  TO:  de 
gummo  genere,  'of  the  highest  rank'  ;factum  de  marmore  nignitm,  'a  bust 
made  of  marble';  homo  de  ptebe,  'a  man  of  plebeian  rank,'  'a  plebeian'; 
triumphus  de  Gallid,  *a  triumph  over  (concerning)  Gaul';  yravi  de  causa, 
'  for  a  grave  reason ' ;  de  more  vetusto,  '  according  to  ancient  custom ' ;  de  in- 
dustrid,  'on  purpose' ;  de  integro, '  anew.'  See  also  415,  III.,  note  2. 

E,  ex,3  OUT  OF,  FROM.  1.  Of  Place ;  our  OF,  FROM,  IN,  ON:  ex  urbe,  *  froir> 
the  city,'  '  out  of  the  city ' ;  ex  equ6pugndrel '  to  fight  on  horseback ' ;  ex  mn~ 
vulls,  'in  chains'  (lit.,  out  of  or  from  chains) ;  ex  itinere,  'on  the  march.' 
2.  Of  Time  ;  FKOM,  DIRECTLY  AFTER,  SINCE  :  ex  ed  tempore,  '  from  that  time '  ; 
ex.  tempore  dlcere, '  to  speak  extemporaneously ' ;  diem  ex  die,  '  from  day  to 
day.'  3.  In  other  relations;  FROM,  OUT  OF,  OF,  ACCORDING  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF, 
THROUGH  :  ex  vulneribm  perire,  'to  perish  of  (because  of)  wounds';  unus  I 
filils,  'one  of  the  sons' ;  ex  commutation e,  'on  account  of  the  change' ;  ex 
consiietudine,  '  according  to  custom ' ;  e  vestujio,  '  on  the  spot ' ;  ex  part* 
mdgna,  'in  great  part' ;  ex  improplso, '  unexpectedly.' 

1  (irock  «»-o.        *  Compare  Greek  tvv.  <rvv.  with        *  Oomoare  Greek  it.  out  of 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  23? 

Prae,  BEFORE,  IN  COMPARISON  WITH,  IN  CONSEQUENCE  OF,  BECAUSE  OF:1 
prae  manu  esse,  '  to  be  at  hand ' ;  prae  manu  habere,  '  to  have  at  hand ' ;  prae 
seferre, '  to  show,  display,  exhibit' ;  prae  ndbls  bedtus, '  happy  in  comparison 
with  us';  non  prae  lacrimis1  posse, '  not  to  be  able  becau.se  of  tears.' 

Pr5,  BEFORE  ;  IN  BEHALF  OF,  IN  DEFENCE  OF,  FOR  ;  INSTEAD  OF,  AS  ;  IN 
RETURN  FOR,  FOR  ;  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  PROPORTION  TO  I  pTO  COStrlg,  '  before  the 

camp ' ;  pro  libertdte, '  in  defence  of  liberty  ' ;  pro  patrid,  '  for  the  country  ' ; 
pro  consuls  =  proconsul,  'a  proconsul'  (one  acting  for  a  consul) ;  pro  certo 
habere, '  to  regard  as  certain ' ;  pro  eo,  quod,  '  for  the  reason  that,'  '  because  ' ; 
pro  tud  prudentid,  '  in  accordance  with  your  prudence  ' ;  pro  -iniperio,  '  im- 
periously ' ;  pro  s~e  quisque, '  each  according  to  his  ability.' 

435.  The  ACCUSATIVE  or  ABLATIVE  is  used  with — 
In,        sub,        subter,        super : 

In  Asiam  profugit.  hejied  into  Asia.  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  montem,  toward  the  mountain.  Caes.  Sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Liv.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga.  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a  tortoise  or  shed.  Verg.  Super  Numidiam,  beyond 
Numidia.  Sail.  II  ac  super  re  scrlbam,  I  shall  write  on  this  subject.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  and  sub  take  the  Accusative  after  verbs  implying  motion,  the  Ablative 
after  those  implying  rest ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  '2.— Subter  and  super  generally  take  the  Accusative ;  but  super,  when  it  means 
concerning,  of,  on  (of  a  subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ;  see  examples. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  in,  sub,  subter,  and  super  deserve  notice  : 

In,  with  the  Accusative,  INTO,  TO,  TOWARD,  TILL.  1.  Of  Place  ;  INTO,  TO, 
TOWARD.  AGAINST,  IN :  ire  in  urbem,  'to  go  into  the  city';  in  Persds,  'into 
the  country  of  the  Persians';  in  dram,  'to  the  altar';  wnurn  in  locum  con- 
venire,  '  to  meet  in  one  place'  (380,  with  note).  2.  Of  Time;  INTO,  TO,  FOR, 
TILL:  in  noctem, '  into  the  night' ;  in  multam  noctem,  'until  late  at  night'; 
in  diem, '  into  the  day,'  also  '  for  the  day ' ;  in  dies, '  from  day  to  day,' '  daily  ' ; 
invltdre  in  posterum  diem, '  to  invite  for  the  following  day.'  3.  In  other  rela- 
tions ,  INTO,  AGAINST,  TOWARD,  ON,  FOR,  AS,  IN  I  divisft  in  partfs  tres, '  divided 
into  three  parts' ;  in  hostern, '  against  the  enemy';  in  id  certd/men,  '  for  this 
content ' ;  in  memoriam, patris, '  in  memory  of  his  father ' ;  in,  spem  pads, '  in 
the  hope  of  peace' ;  in  rem  ewe, '  to  be  useful,' '  to  be  to  the  purpose.' 

In.  with  the  Ablative,  IN,  ON,  AT.  1.  Of  Place;  IN,  AT,  WITHIN,  AMONG, 
UPON:  in  urbe,  'in  the  city';  in  Persis,  'among  the  Persians';  sapientis- 
simns  in  septem, '  the  wisest  among  or  of  the  seven.'  2.  Of  Time  ;  IN,  AT, 
DURING,  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  :  in  till  I  tempore,  '  at  such  a  time  ' ;  in  ternporc, '  in 
time.'  3.  In  other  relations  ;  IN,  ON,  UPON,  IN  THE  CASK  OF  :  esse  in  arm-it, '  to 
be  in  arms ' ;  in  summo  timore, '  in  the  greatest  fear ' ;  in  hoc  homine,  '  in  the 
case  of  this  man." 

Sub.  ifith  the  Accusative,  UNDER,  BENEATH,  TOWARD.  UP  TO,  ABOUT,  DIRECT- 


1  This  causal  meaning  is  developed  from  the  local.  The  noun  in  the  Ablative  is 
thought  of  as  an  obstacle  or  hindrance :  non  prtie  liter im>s  posse, '  not  to  be  able  60- 
/ore,  in.  the  presence  of,  because  of  such  a  hindrance  as  tears,.' 


238  CASES    WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

LT  AFTER  :  sub  jugum  mittere,  '  to  send  under  the  yoke ' ;  sub  nostrum  aciem, 
'  toward  our  line ' ;  sub  astra,  '  up  to  the  stars ' ;  sub  vesperum,  '  toward  even- 
ing'; sub  eds  litterds,  'directly  after  that  letter';  sub  imperium  reddctus, 
'  brought  under  one's  sway.' 

Sub,  with  the  Ablative,  UNDER,  AT,  AT  THE  FOOT  OF,  IN,  ABOUT  :  sub  terra,, 
'  under  the  earth ' ;  sub  pellibus,  '  in  tents ' ;  >  sub  bruma,  '  at  the  time  of  the 
winter  solstice ' ;  sub  luce,  '  at  dawn ' ;  sub  hoc  verbo,  '  under  this  word ' ;  sub 
iudice,  '  in  the  hands  of  the  judge '  (i.  e.,  not  yet  decided). 

NOTE. — Subter,  a  strengthened  form  2  of  sub,  meaning  UNDER,  generally  takes  the 
Accusative,  though  it  admits  the  Ablative  in  poetry:  subter  mare,  'under  the  sea'; 
subt-er  togam, '  under  the  toga' ;  subter  densa  testiidine,  '  under  a  compact  testudo.' 

Super,  with  the  Accusative,  OVER,  UPON,  ABOVE  :  sedens  super  arma,  '  sit- 
ting upon  the  arms ' ;  super  Numidiam, '  beyond  Numidia ' ;  super  sexdgintd 
milia,  '  upward  of  sixty  thousand ' ;  super  ndturam,  '  supernatural ' ;  super 
omnia,  '  above  all.' 

Super,  with  the  Ablative,  UPON,  AT,  DURING,  CONCERNING,  OF,  ON  :  strata 
tuper  astro,  '  upon  purple  couches '  (lit.,  upon  the  spread  purple)  ;  node  super 
media,,  '  at  midnight ' ;  hoc  super  re  tcrtbere,  '  to  write  upon  this  subject ' ; 
multa  super  Priamo  rogitdns,  '  asking  many  questions  about  Priam.' 

NOTB. — The  Ablative  is  rare  with  super,  except  when  it  means  concerning,  about,  on 
(of  the  subject  of  discourse).  It  is  then  the  regular  construction. 

436.  Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs  (SOT,  note  1),  and  many  of 
the  words  generally  classed  as  prepositions  are  often  used  as  adverbs  3  in 
classical  authors : 

Ad  mllibus  quattuor,  about  four  thousand.  Caes.  Omnia  contra  circaque, 
all  things  opposite  and  around.  Liv.  Prope  a  Sicilia,  not  far  from  Sicily, 
Cic.  Juxta  positus,  placed  near  by.  Nep.  Supry,  Infra  esse,  to  be  above,  be- 
low. Cic.  Nee  citra  nee  ultra,  neither  on  this  s-ide  nor  on  that  side.  Ov. 

437.  Conversely,  several  words  generally  classed  as  adverbs  are  some- 
times used  as  prepositions.     Such  are — 

1.  With  the  ACCUSATIVE,  propius,  proxime,  vridie,  postndie,  usque,  di- 
super  : 

Propius  pertculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.  Prldie  Idus,  the  day  before 
'.he  Ides.  Cic.  Usque  pedes,  even  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  "With  the  ABLATIVE,  intus,  palam,  procul,  simul  (poetic) : 

Tall  intus  templ6,  within  such  a  temple.  Verg.  Palam  populo,  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  Liv.  Procul  castris,  at  a  distance  from  the  camp.  Tac. 
feimul  his,  with  these.  Hor. 

3.  With  the  ACCUSATIVE  or  ABLATIVE,  clam,  insuper  : 

Clam  patrem,  without  the  father's  knowledge.  Plaut.  Clam  vobls,  without 
your  Icnowledge.  Caes. 

1  That  is,  in  camp  (lit.,  under  skins'). 

1  Formed  from  sub,  like  in-ter  from  in ;  see  433, 1.,  inter,  foot-note. 

*  They  are,  in  fact,  sometimes  adverbs  and  sometimes  prepositions. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES.  239 

CHAPTER    III. 
SYNTAX   OF   ADJECTIVES. 


RULE   XXXIV.—  Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  GENDER, 
NUMBER,  and  CASE  : 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic.  Verae  amlcitiae,  trite  friend- 
ships. Cic.  Magister  optimus,  the  best  teacher.  Cic.  Qua  in  re  prlvatas 
injurias  ultus  est,  in  ivhich  thing  he  avenged  private  wrongs.  Caes.  Sol 
oriens  diem  cOnficit,  the  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic. 

1.  Adjective  Pronouns  and  Participles  are  ADJECTIVES  in  construction,  and 
accordingly  conform  to  this  rule,  as  in  qua  in  re,  sol  oriens. 

2.  When  an  adjective  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  .wra)  to  form  the 
predicate,  as  in  caeca  est,  '  is  blind,'  it  is  called  a  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  (360, 
note  1);  but  when  it  simply  qualifies  a  noun,  as  in  verae  amlcitiae,  'true- 
friendships,'  it  is  called  an  ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE. 

3.  AGREEMENT  WITH  CLAUSE,  ETC. — An  adjective  may  agree  with  any  word 
or  words  used  substantively,  as  ^.pronoun,  clause,  infinitive,  etc. : 

Quis  clarior,  who  is  more  illustrious  ?  Cic.  Certum  est  liberfm  amiirl,  it 
it  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.  See  42,  note. 

NOTB.— An  adjective  agreeing  with  a  clause  is  sometimes  plural,  as  In  Greek : 

Ut  AenCas  jactetur  nota  tib5,  how  Aeneas  it  tossed  about  ix  kntmn  to  you.  Verg. 

4.  A  NEUTER  ADJECTIVE  used  as  a  substantive  sometimes  supplies  the  place 
of  a  Predicate  Adjective  : ' 

Mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  last  thing.  Cic.  Trlste  lupus  stabulis, 
a  wolf  is  a  sad  thing  for  the  flocks.  Verg. 

5.  A  NEUTER  ADJECTIVE  WITH  A  GENITIVE  is  often  used  instead  of  an  ad- 
jective with  its  noun,  especially  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  : 

Multum  operae,  much  service."1  Cic.  Id  temporis,  that  time.'1  Cic.  Vana 
rerum,  vain  t 'tings.*  Ilor.  Opaca  viarum,  dark  street*.  Verg.  Strata  viarum, 
paved  streets.  Verg.  See  also  397,  3,  note  4. 

6.  SYNESIS.*— Sometimes  the  adjective  or  participle  conforms  to  the  real 
meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or  number : 

Pars  certare  paratl,4  a  part  (some),  prepared  to  contend.  Verg.  Inspe- 
ranti  *  nobis,  to  -us  (me)  not  expecting  it.  Catul.  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris 
erant  expulsl,4  Demosthenes  with  the  others  hud  been  banished.  Nep. 

1  As  in  Greek  :  oi«c  ayadbc  TroAuxoipai'ii),  the  rule  of  the  many  is  not  a  good  thing. 
8  Multum  operae  —  multa  opera  or  multam  operam  ;  id  temporis  =  id  tempvt ; 
vdna  rfrum  =  m'tnae  rex  or  vi'im'ts  re*. 

*  A  construction  according  to  sense;  see  630,  IV.,  4. 

*  ParuM  is  plural,  to  conform  to  the  moaning  of  jiars,  'part,'  'some,'  plural  in  sense; 


240  AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

f 

NOTE. — In  the  Ablative  Absolute  (431)  absents  and  praesente  occur  in  early  Latin 
with  a  plural  noun  or  pronoun  : 1 

Praesente  >  ibus  (els),*  in  their  presence  (lit.,  they  being  present).  Plaut.  Prae- 
seute  testibus,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  Plaut. 

7.  AGREEMENT  WITH  ONE  NOUN  FOR  ANOTHER. — When  a  noun  governs  an- 
other in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two  nouns, 
sometimes  agrees  with  the  other : 

Majora  (for  ma/jorum)  rerum  initia,  the  beginnings  of  greater  things.  Liv. 
Cursus  justi  (Justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.  Liv. 

NOTE!.— In  the  passive  forms  of  verbs  the  participle  sometimes  agrees  with  a 
predicate  noun  or  with  an  appositive  ;  see  463. 

NOTE  2. — An  adjective  or  participle  predicated  of  an  Accusative  IB  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  to  agree  with  the  subject : 

Ostendit  se  dextra  (for  demtram),  she  shows  herself  favorable.    Verg. 

439.  An  adjective  or  participle,  belonging  to  TWO  OR  MORE 
NOUNS,  may  agree  with  them  all  conjointly,  or  may  agree  with  one 
and  be  understood  with  the  others: 

Castor  et  Pollux  vial  sunt,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen.  Cic.  Dubitare 
visus  est  Sulpicius  et  Cotta,  Sulpicius  and  Gotta  seemed  to  doubt.  Cic.  Temeri- 
tus  Ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad.  Cic. 

1.  The  ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun  : 
AgrI  omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.   Cic.     Cuncta  maria  terraeque, 

all  seas  and  lands.    Sail. 

2.  A  plural  adjective  or  participle,  agreeing  with  two  or  more  NOUNS  OF 
DIFFERENT  GENDERS,  is  generally  masculine  when  the  nouns  denote  persona 
or  sentient  beings,  and  in  other  cases  generally  neuter  : 

Pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead.  Ter.  Honores, 
Tlctoriae  fortulta  sunt,  honors  and  victories  are  accidental  things.  Cic.  Laoor 
Yoluptasque  inter  se  sunt  juncta,  labor  and  pleasure  are  joined  together.  Liv. 

NOTE. — When  nouns  denoting  sentient  beings  are  combined  with  those  denoting 
things,  the  plural  adjective  or  participle  in  agreement  with  them  sometimes  takes  the 
gender  of  the  former  and  sometimes  of  the  latter,  and  sometimes  is  neuter  irrespective 
of  the  gender  of  the  nouns  : 

Hex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  the  king  and  the  royal  fleet  set  out.  Liv.  Kegein 
n'gnumque  sua  futura  sciunt,  they  know  that  the  king  and  the  kingdom  will  be  theirs. 
Liv.  Inimica3  inter  se  sunt  Ubera  ci  vitas  et  rex,  a  free  state  and  a  king  are  hostile  to 
each  other.  Liv. 

3.  With  nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  or  participle  is 
often  neuter,  irrespective  of  the  gender  of  the  nouns  : 

Labor  et  dolor  sunt  ftnitima,  labor  and  pain  are  kindred  (things).    Cic. 


Innperantl  is  singular,  because  nobls  is  here  applied  to  one  person,  the  speaker  (446, 
note  2);  expulsl  is  plural,  because  Demosthenes  own  citerls  means  Demosthenes  ASH 
the  others. 

1  In  this  construction  alttente  and  praesente  appear  to  be  treated  as  adverbs. 

*  See  p.  7:?,  foot-note  2. 

•  Perhaps  best  explained  tubstantively — things  hostile ;  see  438,  4. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.  241 

Nox  atque  praeda  hostls  reinorata  sunt,  night  and  plunder  detained  the  enemy- 

Sail. 

4.  Two  OB  MORE  ADJECTIVES  in  the  singular  may  belong  to  a  plural  noun: 
Prlma  et  vlcesima  legiones,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions.   Tac. 

NOTE.— In  the  same  way  two  or  more  praenomina '  in  the  singular  may  be  com- 
bined with  a  family  name  in  the  plural : 

Gnaeua  et  Publius  Sclpiones,  Gnaeus  and  PubVius  Sdpio.  Cic.  Publius  et  Herviuf 
Sullae,  PubUuH  and  Servius  SuVa-  Sail. 

USE  OP  ADJECTIVES. 

440.  The  adjective  in  Latin  corresponds  in  its  general  use  to 
the  adjective  in  English. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  an  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea 
formed  by  a  noun  and  another  adjective : 

Duae  potentissimae  gentes,  two  very  powerful  races.  Liv.  Magnum  aes 
alienum,  a  large  debt.  Cic.  Naves  longas  trlginta  veteres,  thirty  old  vessels 
of  war.  Liv.3 

NOTE. — In  general  no  connective  is  used  when  adjectives  are  combined,  as  in  duae. 
potentissimae  gentts,  etc.;  but  If  the  first  adjective  is  multt  or  plttrirni,  the  connective 
is  usually  inserted : 

Multae  et  magnae  cogitationus,  many  great  fftouy/its.  Cic.  Multa  et  praeclara  fa- 
ciuora,  many  illustrious  deed*.  Sail.  » 

2.  PROI.EPBIS  or  ANTICIPATION.  -An  adjective  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
noun  to  denote  the  result  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb : 

Submersas 8  obrue  pupp&s,  overwhelm  and  sink  the  ships  (lit. ,  overwlielm 
the  sunken  ships).  Verg.  ScQta  latentia8  condunt,  they  conceal  their*hidden 
shields.  Verg. 

NOTE  1.— Certain  adjectives  often  designate  a  PAKTICULAR  PART  of  an  object:  prlma 
nor.  the  first  part  of  the  night ;  mt<Hit  aentdte,  in  the  middle  of  summer;  snmmwt  mons, 
tin  top  (highest  part)  of  the  mountain. 

NOTE  2. — The  adjectives  thus  used  are  prlmm,  mediiM,  ftltimus,  fa-tremux^  potttre- 
mtut,  intimwi,  giimnnm,  Infimiis,  tmus,  supremux,  tf/iquwt.  cfttra,  etc. 

NOTE  8.— In  the  poets,  in  Livy,  and  in  late  prose  writers,  the  neuter  of  these  adjec- 
ilves  with  a  Genitive  sometimes  occurs  : 

Libyae  extrf  ma,  Vie  frontier*  of  Libya.  Verg.  Ad  iiltimum  inopiae  (for  ad  ultimam 
inopiam),  to  esrtreme  destitution.  I.iv. 

NOTE  4.— Adjectives  are  often  combined  with  Rfia  :  rex  arfrersae,  adversity ;  res  se- 
cundae,  prosperity;  res  novat,  revolution ;  rin piiblica^  republic. 


1  For  Roman  names,  see  649. 

*  Here  duae  qualifies  not  Blmply  yentfs.  but  potent isrimt if  gentes;  magnum  quali- 
fies aes  alifnwii,  'debt'  (lit.,  money  belonging  to  another);  veteres  qualifies  na-rfs 
lunyi'm,  'vessels  of  war'  (lit.,  'long  vessels'),  while  trlginta  qualifies  the  still  more  com- 
plex expression,  n/lvSit  longtis  veterfs. 

3  Observe  that  submenu! x  gives  the  retatft  of  the  action  denoted  by  olirue,  and  Is  not 
applicable  to  puppet  until  that  action  is  performed;  latentia  likewise  gives  the  rtt\M 
of  i'(»idiint. 


242  USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

441 .  Adjectives  and  participles  are  often  used  SUBSTANTIVELY  :' 
£oni,  the  good  ;  mortafes,  mortals ;  docti,  the  learned  ;  sapient?*,  the  wise ; 

multi,  many  persons;  multa,  many  things;  praefectus,  a  prefect;2  natm,  a  son.* 

1.  In  the  plural,  masculine  adjectives  and  participles  often  designate  PERSONS,  and 
neuter  adjectives  THINGS:  fortes,  the  brave;   divites,  the  rich;  pauperes,  the  poor; 
multi.  many;  pauci,  few;  omnes,  all;  mei,  my  friends;  discentes,  learners;  spectant's, 
spectators \futura,  future  events;  fit-ilia,  useful  things;  mea,  nostra,  my  things,  our 
things;  omnia,  all  things;  haec,  ilia,  these  things,  those  things. 

2.  In  the  singular,  adjectives  and  participles  are  occasionally  used  SUBSTANTIVE:  ^ 
•specially  in  the  Genitive,  or  in  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  a  preposition :  doctvx, 
a  learned  man;  adulescenx,  a  young  man;  verum.  a  true  thing,  the  truth;  falxum,  a 
falsehood;  nihil  sincerl,  nothing  of  sincerity,  nothing  sincere;  nih.it.  humdni,  nothing 
human;  nihil  rSliqui,  nothing  left;3  aliquid  novl,  something  new;  aprlmd,  from  the 
beginning;  ad  extremum,  to  the  end;  ad  sum-mum,  to  the  highest  point;  de  integro, 
afresh;  de  improvlso,  unexpectedly;  ex  aequo,  in  like  manner;  in  praesentl,  at  pres- 
ent; infutf/rum,  for  the  future;  pro  certo,  as  certain.4 

NOTE  1. — For  the  neuter  participle  with  opus  and  fisus,  see  414.  IV.,  note  8. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  use  of  adjectives  instead  of  ribuns  in  the  Genitive,  see  395,  note  2. 

8.  A  few  substantives  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  especially  verbal  nouns  in 
tor  and  trlx : 6  victor  exercitm,  a  victorious  army ;  homo  gladiator,  a  gladiator,  a  gladi- 
atorial man;  victrices  Athenae,  victorious  (conquering)  Athens;  populus  late  rex,  a 
people  of  extensive  sway.6 

442.  EQUIVALENT  TO  A  CLAUSE. — Adjectives,  like  nouns  in  ap- 
p*osition,  are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses  : 

Nemo  sal  tut  sobrius,  no  one  dances  when  Tie  is  sober,  or  when  sober.   Cic. 

Hortensium  vlvum  amavl,  /  loved  Hortensius,  while  he  wot  alive.   Cic.     Horn? 

nunquam  sobrius,  a  man  who  is  never  sober.   Cic. 

NOTE. — Prior,  primus,  vltimtis,  postremus,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a  relative  clause: 
Primus  morem  solvit,  fie  was  the  first  tcho  broke  the  custom."1  Liv. 

443.  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVEKBS. — Adjectives  are   sometimes 
used  where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs : 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  CHEERFULLY  drank  the  poison. 
Sen.  Senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled,  IN  GBEAT  NUMBERS.  Cic. 
Roscius  erat  ROmae  frequens,  Roscius  was  frequently  at  Rome.  Cic. 

1  That  is,  words  which  were  originally  adjectives  or  participles  sometimes  become 
zubstanti-ves ;  indeed,  many  substantives  were  originally  adjectives;  see  323,  foot-note; 
324,  foot-note. 

2  Praffectus,  from  praejlcio  (lit.,  one  appointed  over);  natus,  from  nascor  (lit., 
one  born). 

8  See  397,  1.    For  nihil  rsliqul  facere,  see  401,  note  4. 

4  Numerous  adverbial  expressions  are  thus  formed  by  combining  the  neuter  of  adjec- 
tives with  prepositions. 

•  That  is,  these  words  are  generally  substantives,  but  sometimes  adjectives. 

•  See  Verg.,  Aen.,  I.,  21. 

7  With  the  adverb  primwm  the  thought  would  be,  he  first  brake  the  custom  (i.  e., 
before  doing  anything  else).  Compare  the  corresponding  distinction  between  tb-  Greek 
Adjective  irpwrot  and  the  adverb  irpurov. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.  243 

NOTE  1. — The  adjectives  chiefly  thus  used  are — (1)  Those  expressive  of  Joy^  knowl- 

trfge,  and  their  opposites  :  laetus,  libens,  invltus,  trlstis,  sciens,  msciens,  prudent,  tin- 

prudens,  etc.    (2)  IffMus^  solus,  totus,  units;  prior,  primus,  propior,  prfKKimus,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  poets  a  few  adjectives  of  time  and  place  are  used  in  the  same  manner: 

Domesticus  otior,  /  idle  about  home.  Hor.    Vespertlnus  pete  tgctum,  <•(  mewing 

eetk  your  abode,  Hor. 

NOTE  3. — In  rare  instances  adverbs  seem  to  supply  the  place  of  adjectives: 
Omnia  recte  sunt,  all  things  are  RIGHT.  Clc.    Non  Ignari  sumus  ante  malorum,1  we 
ir«  not  ignorant  of  PAST  misfortunes.  Verg.    Nune  hominum  '  mores,  the  charade* 
-fmen  OF  THB  PRESENT  DAT.  Plaut 

NOTE  4. — Numeral  adverbs  often  occur  with  titles  of  office:  » 

Flaminius,  consul  iterum,  Flaminiiis,  when  consul  for  the  second  time.  Cto. 

444.  A  COMPARISON  between  two  objects  requires  the  com- 
parative degree  ;  between  more  than  two,  the  superlative : 

Prior  hOrum,  the  former  of  these  (two).  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissiml,  tht 
bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 

1.  The  comparative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  TOO,  UNUSUALLY,  SOME- 
WHAT, and  the  superlative,  the  force  of  VEBY  :  doctior,  too  learned,  or  some- 
what learned ;  doctissimus,  very  learned. 

NOTE. — Certain  superlatives  are  common  as  titles  of  honor :  eldrfssimus,  noblHssi- 
mus,  and  summits— especially  applicable  to  men  of  consular  or  senatorial  rank;  forttsst- 
mus,  honestissimus,  illwtrwximus,  and  splendid  issimus—  especially  applicable  to  those 
of  the  equestrian  order. 

2.  COMPARATIVE  AFTER  QUAM. — When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  on» 
quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  another,  the  two  adjectives  thus  used  either 
may  be  connected  by  magis  quam  *  or  may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : « 

Disertus  magis  quam  sapiens,  more  fluent  than  wise.*  Clc.  Praeclarnm  magii 
quam  difficile,  more  noble  than  difficult,  or  noble  rather  than  difficult.  Clc.  Dftl&rSs 
quam  fortiores,  more  wealthy  than  brave.*  Lav.  Clurior  quam  gr&tior,  more  Ul/ustri- 
OUH  than  pleasing.  Liv. 

NOTB  1.— In  a  similar  manner  two  adverbs  may  be  connected  by  magis  quam^  or 
may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : 

Magis  audiicter  quam  parato,  n-ith  more  audacity  than  preparation.  Clc.  Bellnm 
fortius  quam  fullcius  gerere,  to  wage  war  with  more  valor  than  success.  Liv. 

NOTB  2.— The  form  with  magis,  both  in  adjectives  and  in  adverbs,  may  sometimes 
be  best  rendered  rather  than  : 

Ars  magis  inagna  quam  dlfficilis,  an  art  extensive  rather  than  difficult,  do.  See 
also  the  second  example  under  2,  above. 

NOTB  3.— In  the  later  Latin  the  positive  sometimes  follows  quam,  even  when  thv 
regular  comparative  precedes,  and  sometimes  two  positives  are  used : 

Vehementius  quam  mute  appetere,  to  seek  more  eagerly  Vmn  cautiouxty.  Tac. 
Claris  quam  vetustis,  illuxtrious  rather  than  ancient.  Tac. 

NOTB  4  —For  the  use  of  comparatives  before  quam  pro,  see  417, 1,  note  6. 

1  Like  the  Greek  TUP  irpiv  KOKIOV  and  ru>v  vvv  at>9pu>irtav. 

9  The  want  of  a  present  participle  in  the  verb  sum  brings  these  adverbs  into  close 
connection -with  nouns. 

3  As  in  English,  more  fluent  than  wise.    This  IB  the  usual  method  in  dcero. 

*  As  in  Greek,  n-Aei'ope?  >)  j3eArc'oi>e«,  mart  numerous  than  good.  Thlt  method,  coot 
•ion  in  Livy,  is  rare  in  the  earlier  writers. 


244  AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS. 

3.  STRENGTHENING  WORDS.  —  Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as  by  ante,  prae,  praeter,  tupm 
(417, 1,  note  8).  Comparatives  are  also  often  strengthened  by  etiam,  even, 
still ;  multd,  much ;  and  superlatives  by  longe,  multo,  by  far,  much ;  vel,  even ; 
unus,  units  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  without  exception,  far,  by  far;  quam, 
quam  or  quantum  with  the  verb  possum,  as  possible ;  tarn  quam  qui,  ut  qui, 
as  possible  (lit.,  as  he  who) : 

Majores  etiam  varietates,  even  greater  varieties.  Cic.  Multfi  etiam  graving  queri 
tur,  he  complains  even  much  more  bitterly.  Caes.  Multo  maxima  pars,  by  far  tin 
largest  part.  Cic.  Quam  saepissiine,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.  Cnus  omnium  doctis- 
Jimus,  without  exception  the  most  learned  of  men.  Cic.  Kes  una  omnium  difficilliraa, 
a  thing  by  far  the  moat  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  copiae,  forces  as  large 
as  possible.  Ball.  Quantam  maximam  potcst  vastitatem  ostendit,  he  exhibits  the  great- 
tit  possible  desolation  (lit,  as  great  as  the  greatest  he  can).  LIT. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 


RULE  XXXV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

445.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  GENDER, 

NUMBER,  and  PERSON  * 

Animal  qttoo,  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  WHICH  has  blooa.  Cic.  Ego, 
qul  te  cOnfirmO,  T  WHO  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus,  can 
cxrit a,  there  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  THEM.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whose 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent  of 
yuod  ;  ego,  of  qui ;  and  virtutibus.  of  c.7* 

1.  This  rule  applies  to  all  pronoune  when  used  as  nov-ns.    Pronouns  used 
as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjectives ;  sec  438. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  latter : 

Tu  es  is  qui  me  ornastl,  you  are  the  one  WHO  commendea  me.   Cic. 

3.  When  a  relative,  or  other  pronoun,  Tefers  to  TWO  OR  MORE  ANTECEDENTS, 
it  generally  agrees  with  them    -onjointly,  bu    it  sometimes  agrees  with  tkc 
Hearest  or  the  most  important: 

Fietas,  virtus,  fides,  quorum 1  Eomae  templa  sunt,  piety,  virtue,  and  faith, 
WHOSE  temples  are  at  Rome.  Cic.  Peccfitum  ac  culpa,  quae,1  error  and  fault, 
WHICH.  Cic. 


1  Qudrum  agrees  with  pietus,  virtus,  and  Jides  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  th« 
plural ;  but  quae  agrees  simply  with  culpa. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS.  245 

NOTM  1.— With  antecedents  of  different  (tender*,  the  pronoun  conforms  in  gender  U 
the  rule  for  adjectives  (439,  2  and  3) : 

Pueri  innlien'sque  qu>,1  boys  and  women  wuo.  Caes.  inconstantia  et  temeritSi 
fuae '  digna  non  sunt  deo,  inconstancy  and  ratfinesx  WHICH  are  not  worthy  of  a 
god.  Cic. 

Nor.:  2. — With  antecedents  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  persoi 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs  (463. 1) : 

Ego  ac  til  inter  no«a  loquimur,  you  and  I  converge  together.  Tac.  Et  tu  et  colk'gae 
Vni,  qul a  sperastis,  both  you  and  your  colleagues,  wuo  hoped.  Cic. 

4.  By  ATTRACTION,  a  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  a  PREDICATE  NOUN 
•>r  an  APPOSITIVE  instead  of  the  antecedent : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  WHICH  we  call 
man.3  Cic.  Thebae,  quod  (quae)  caput  est,  Thebes,  WHICH  is  the  capital.  Liv. 
Ea  (id)  erat  confessifi,  THAT  (i.  e.,  the  action  referred  to)  teas  a  confession. 
Liv.  FlQmen  Rhenus,  qul,  the  river  Rhine,  WHICH.  Caes. 

5.  By  SYNESIS,  the  pronoun  is  sometimes  construed  according  to  the  real 
meaning  of  the  antecedent,  without  regard  to  grammatical  form ;  and  some- 
times it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to  which  the  antecedent  belongs : 

Quia  tessum  militem  habebat,  his  quit-tern  dedit,  as  he  had  an  exhausted 
wldiery,  he  gave  THEM  (THESE)  a  rest.  Liv.  Equitatus,  qul  vlderunt,  the  cav- 
alry WHO  saw,  Caes.  De  alia.  rC,  quod  ad  me  attinet,  in  regard  to  another 
thing  WHICH  pertains  to  me.  Plaut.  Earura  rerum  utrumque,  EACH  of  these 
things.  Cic.  Democritum  omittamus ;  apud  istos  ;  let  us  omit  Deinocritus  ; 
with  SUOH  (i.  e.,  as  he).  Cic. 

6.  ANTECEDENT  OMITTED. — The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omitted 
when  it  is  indefinite,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  is  implied  in  a  posses- 
sive pronoun,  or  in  an  adjective : 

Sunt  qul  censeant,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod  ac- 
cepit,  the  earth  returns  what  it  has  received.  Cic.  Vestra,  qul  cum  integri- 
tate  vlxlstis,  hoc  interest,  this  interests  you  u-ho  hace  lived  with  integrity.  Cic. 
Servilis  tumultus  quos,  the  revolt  of  the  slaves  whom.  Caes. 

7.  CLAUSE  AS  ANTECEDENT. — When  the  antecedent  is  a  sentence  or  clausb, 
the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445,  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular,  but  the 
relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositire  to  such  antecedent : 

NOs,  id  quod  dt'bet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  outjlit 
(lit.,  that  which  it  oire*).  Cic.  Regem,  quod  nunquam  aiitea  acciderat,  neca 
vf-runt,  they  put  their  king  to  death,  which  had  never  before  happened.  Cic. 

8.  RELATIVE  ATTRACTED.— The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
case  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated : 

Jfldice  quo  (for  quein)  n6sti,  the  judge  whom  you  trnoii>.    Hor.     Dies  Inatat, 


»  Qul  agrees  with  puerl  and  mulierfs  conjointly,  and  is  in  the  wnsculinf,  according 
V  439,  2;  but  quae  is  In  the  ntuter,  according  to  439,  3. 

9  2fog,  referring  to  eyo  dc  tii,  is  in  the  firxt  person  ;  while  qul,  referring  to  ti'i  et  col- 
ifgae,  is  ta  the  secoml  person,  as  is  shown  by  the  verb  *pfra*tia. 

1  In  these  examples,  the  pronouns  quern,  quod,  and  ea  are  attracted,  to  agree  witL 
their  predicate  nouns,  hominem,  caput,  and  oonfesnio;  but  qui  agrees  with  iu« 
live,  litimut 


246  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

quo  die,  the  day  is  at  hand,  on  which  day.   Cues.     Cumae,  quam  urbem  tene 
bant,  Cumae,  which  city  they  held.    Liv. 

9.  ANTECEDENT  ATTRACTED. — In  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent  is 
sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  •,  and  sometimes  incorporated 
in  the  relative  clause  with  the  relative  in  agreement  with  it : 

Urbem,  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  the  city  which  I  am  building  is  yours. 
Verg.1  Malarum,  quas  amor  curas  habet,  obliviscl  (for  malarum  curdrum 
quas),  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  has.  Hor.1  Quos  vos  implorare 
debetis,  ut,  quam  urbem  pulcherrimam  esse  voluC-runt,  hanc 2  defendant,  these 
(lit.,  whom)  you  ought  to  implore  to  defend  this  city,  which  they  wished  to  be 
most  beautiful.  Cic. 

USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

446.  PERSONAL,  PRONOUNS. — The  Nominative  of  Personal  Pro- 
nouns is  used  only  for  emphasis  or  contrast :  * 

Significamus  quid  sentiamus,  we  show  what  we  think.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
ejecl,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  YOD  introduce  tyrant*. 
Cic. 

NOTE  1.— With  quidem  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  but  not  with  equidem  : 

Facts  amice  tu  quidem,  you  act  indeed  in  a  friendly  manner.  Cic.  NSn  dubitu- 
L.am  equidem,  /  did  not  doubt  indeed.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — A  writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  nbs  for  ego,  no#- 
ttr  for  meus,  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular : 

VidSs  nfis  (for  me)  multa  cOnari,  you  see  that  WE  (for  I)  are  attempting  many 
things.  Cic.  SermO  expliciibit  nostrum  (for  meam)  sententiam,  the  conversation  trill 
unfold  OUB  (MY)  opinion.  Cic.  Dixiinus  (for  dlasl)  multa,  J  have  said  many  things. 
Cic.« 

NOTB  8.—Nos(ri  and  vestrl  are  generally  used  in  an  objective  sense ;  nostrum  and 
•vextrum  in  a  partitive  sense : 

Habutis  ducem  memorem  vetttri,  you  have  a  leader  mindful  OF  TOUE  INTERESTS  (o» 
rotr).  Cic.  Minus  haboo  virium  quam  -oestrum  utervTs,  I  have  less  strength  than  either 
OF  yon.  Cic.  Quls  nostrum,  who  OF  us?  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — With  ab,  ad,  or  apud,  a  personal  pronoun  may  designate  the  residence  or 
abode  of  a  person : 

A  nobix  egreditur,  he  is  coming  FROM  OUK  HOUSE.  Ter.  Veni  ad  mt,  I  came  TO  MT 
HOUSE.  Cic.  Kamus  ad  me,  let  us  go  to  my  house.  Ter.  Apud  te  est,  he  in  at  your 
house.  Cic.  Run  apud  se  est,  he  ix  at  hit  residence  in  the  country.  Cic.  See  also 
433,  I.,  <((/,  apud,  etc. 

447.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS,  when  not  emphatic,  are  seldom 
expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Manus  lava,  wash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mihf  mea  vita  cara  est,  my  life  is 
dear  to  me.*  Plaut. 

1  For  other  examples,  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  V.,  28-80;  Hor.,  Sat,  I.,  10, 16. 
3  Qiuim  urbem,  hanc  =  hanc  urbem,  quam. 

3  The  learner  will  remember  that  a  pronominal  subject  is  actually  oouUined  in  tin 
ending  of  the  verb;  see  368,  2,  foot-note. 

4  For  other  examples,  see  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  9,  7,  and  Cw.,  I,  8«. 
*  In  this  example  mea  is  expressed  for  emphasis. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  247 

NOTE  1.— Possessive  Pronouns  sometimes  mean  favorable,  propitious,  as  alienw 
often  means  unfavorable : 

Tetnpore  tuo  pugnasti,  you  fought  at  a  favorable  time.  Liv.  Ferunt  sua  flamina 
classem,  favorable  winds  bear  the  fleet.  Verg.  Alieno  loco  proelium  committnnt,  they 
engage,  in  battle  in  an  unfavorable  place.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Possessive  Pronoun  in  combination  with  a  Genitive,  see  398,  8. 
For  certain  other  uses  of  Possessives,  see  396,  II.,  N.;  III.,  N.  2. 

448.  REFLEXIVE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. — Sul  and  suus  have  a  re- 
flexive sense  ;  *  sometimes  also  the  other  personal  and  possessive 
pronouns : 

Miles  86  ipsum  interftcit,  the  soldier  killed  himself.  Tac.  Telo  se  de- 
fendit,  he  defends  himself  wtth  a  weapon.  Cic.  Sua  vl  movetur,  he  is  moved 
by  his  own  power.  Cic.  Me  consoler,  /  console  myself.  Cic.  Vos  vestra  tecta 
defendite,  defend  your  houses.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Inter  nr>s,  inter  vos,  inter  se,  have  a  reciprocal  force,  each  other,  one  an- 
other, together ;  but  instead  of  inter  se,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  an  oblique  case  : 

Cclloqulmur  inter  nos,  ice  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se,  they  love  one 
ier>other.  Cic.  Homines  hominibus  utiles  sunt,  men  are  useful  to  men  (i.  e.,  to  each 
other).  Cic. 

449.  Sul  and  suus  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  clause 
in  which  they  stand  : 

Sc  dlligit,  he  loves  himself.  Cie.  Justitia  propter  sese  colenda  est,  justice 
*Aould  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulura  suum  dedit,  he  gave  his 
«ing.  Nep.  Per  se  sib!  quisque  cams  est,  every  one  is  in  hit  very  nature 
through  or  in  himself)  dear  to  himself.  Cic. 

1.  In  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 
subject,  sul  and  mus  generally  refer  to  that  subject : 

Bentlt  animus  85  vT  sna  movSrt,  the  mind  perceive*  that  it  i«  moved  by  its  own 
pmoer.  Cic.  A  mo  petlvit  ut  secum  essem,  he  axked  (from)  me  to  be  icith  him  (that  I 
would  be).  Cic.  Pervestlgat  quid  sul  elves  cogitent,  he  tries  to  ascertain  what  hi* 
fellow-citizens  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  mil  and  SUUH  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  in,  il/e,  etc.,  generally 
refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects  which  do  not  admit  sui  and  HHUX  : 

Deum  agnoscis  ex  Ojus  operibus,  you  recognise  a  god  by  (from)  hi*  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  clvitatem  nihil  eos  mQtaturos,  he  bint/*  the  state  not  to  change  anything  (that 
they  will).  Just. 

.2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the  reflexive  or 
the  demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  preient  the  thought  as  that  of  the  principal 
subject,  or  as  liiti  own  : 

Persuadent  Tulingls  utl  cum  ilsa  proficTscantur,  they  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  de- 
part with  them.  Caps. 

8)  86metimes  reflexives  and  demonstratives  are  used  without  any  apparent  distinction  : 


1  Sul,  of  himself;  «/;?,  for  himself;  se,  himself. 

*  Here  cum  iix  is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  without  reference  to  the  senti 
merit  of  the  principal  subject;  necuta,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  preterit  ttic 
thought  as  the  sentiment  of  that  nulijett. 


248  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

Caesar  Fabium  cum  legione  eua '  remittit,  Caesar  sends  back  fabius  and  (withi 
Ms  legion.  Caes.  Omitto  Isocratem  discipulosqne  ejus,1  I  omit  lacerates  and  his  dis- 
ciples. Cic. 

2.  Suus,  in  the  sense  of  His  OWN,  FITTING,  etc.,  may  refer  to  subject  01 
object : 

Tustitia  suum  cinque  tribuit,  justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic. 

3.  SYNESIS. — When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  not  the  real  agent  of  the 
action,  sul  and  sum  refer  to  the  agent : 

A  Caesare  invltor  sibi  ut  sim  legatus,  I  am  invited  by  Caesar  (real  agent)  to  be  his 
lieutenant.  Cic. 

4.  THE  PLURAL  OF  Sues,  meaning  His  FRIENDS,  THEIR  FRIENDS,  THEIR 
POSSESSIONS,  etc.,  is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring  to  oblique 
cases: 

Puit  hoc  luctuosum  BUIS,  this  was  afflicting  to  his  friends.*  Cic. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject: 
DSfonne  est  dS  se  praedicare,  to  boast  ofongt  getfis  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Two  REFLEXIVES. — Sometimes  a  clause  has  one  reflexive  referring  to 
the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring  to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Eespondit  neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendisse,  he  replied  that  no  one  had 
contended  -with  him  without  (his)  destruction*  Caes. 

450.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. — Hlc,  iste,  ilk,  are  often 
called  respectively  demonstratives  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Persons,  as  Jvic  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker  ;  iste,  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed ;  and  ille,  that  which  is  remote 
from  both : 

Custfts  hiijus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city  (i.  e.,  of  our  city).  Cic.  Muta 
islam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  yours.  Cic.  Ista  quae  sunt  a  t6  dicta, 
those  things  which  were  spoken  by  you.  Cic.  Si  illos,  quos  vidCre  non  pos- 
sumus,  neglegis,  if  you  disregard  those  (far  away,  yonder)  whom  we  can  not 
nee.  Cic. 

1.  Hlc  designates  an  object  conceived  as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether 
in  space,  lime,  or  thought  : 

Non  antique  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fait  crudltus,  he  teas  educated,  not  in  that 
ancient,  but  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic.  Hoc  illud  fuit,  was  it  (that)  thisJ  Ver^. 

NOTE.— The  idea  of  contempt  often  implied  In  clausee  with  iste  is  not  strictly  con 
tained  in  the  pronoun  itself,  but  derived  from  the  ;ontext :  * 

Animi  est  ista  mollities,  non  virtus,  THAT  is  an  effeminate  spirit,  not  valor.  Caes. 

1  Observe  that  the  reflexive  is  used  in  the  first  example,  and  the  demon-stratite,  in 
the  second,  though  the  cases  are  entirely  alike. 

4  Here  suit  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

3  Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  re*pon^/it,  and  sua  to  neminem,  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause. 

4  The  idea  of  contempt  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  iste  is  often  applied  t<r 
the  views  of  «n  opponent,  to  a  defendant  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  the  like. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  249 

2.  FORMER  AND  LATTER. — In  reference  to  two  objects  previously  mentioned, 
(1)  hie  generally  follows  ille  and  refers  to  the  latter  object,  while  ille  refers 
to  the  former  ;  but  (2)  hie  may  precede  and  may  refer  to  the  former,  and  ille 
refer  to  the  latter  : 

Inimlcl,  amici ;  illl,  hi,  enemies,  friends ;  the  former,  the  tatter.  Cic.  Certa  pax^ 
spcrata  victoria;  haec  (paw)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  poteslate  est,  sure  peace,  hoped-for 
victory  ;  the  former  is  in  your  power,  the  fatter  in  the  power  ofttte  gods.  Liv. 

NOTE.— flic  refers  to  the  former  object,  when  that  object  is  conceived  of  as  neater 
in  thought,  either  because  of  its  importance,  or  because  of  its  dose  connection  with  the 
subject  under  discussion.' 

3.  Hie  and  ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  discourse : 
His  verbis  epistulam  inisit,  he  sent  a  letter  in  these  words  (i.  e.,  in  the  following 

words).  Nep.    lllud  intellegO,  omnium  ora  in  mS  conversa  esse,  thtf  I  understand,  that 
the  eyes  of  all  are  turned  upon  me.  Sail. 

4.  Ille  is  often  used  of  what  is  WELL  KNOWN,  FAMOUS  : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic.  Ego,  ille  ferox,  tacul.  7,  that  haughty  one, 
wot  silent.  Ovid. 

NOTE  1.— Hie  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  meus  or  noster,  rarely  to  ego,  and  hie 
homo  to  ego : 

Supra  hanc  memoriam,  before  our  time  (lit.,  before  this  memory).  Cic.  His  mei* 
litteris,  with  this  letter  of  mine  (from  me).  Cic.  Hie  horaost  omnium  hominum.  efc., 
of  all  men  I  am,  etc.  (lit.,  this  man  is).  Plaut. 

NOTE  2. — Iflc,  ille,  and  it  are  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  quidem : 

ScIpiO  non  multum  ille  dicebat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.  Graecl  vo- 
lant ill!  quidem,  the  Greeks  indeed  desire  it.  Cic.  Ista  tranquillitas  ea  ipsa  est  beats 
vita,  that  tranquillity  is  itself  a  happy  life.1*  Cic. 

NOTE  8. — A  demonstrative  or  relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  Genitive,  or  to  a 
preposition  with  its  case  :  hie  amor  =  amor  hujus  rei,  'the  love  of  this';  haee  eftra  = 
euro  de  /toe,  *  care  concerning  this.' 

NOTK  4.— Adverbs  derived  from  demonstrative  pronouns  share  the  distinctive  mean- 
ings of  the  pronouns  themselves : 

Hie  plus  mall  est,  quam  illic  boni,  tliere  is  more  of  evil  here,  than  of  good  then.  T«r. 
Bee  also  304 ;  3O5. 

45 1 .  I*  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the  antece- 
dents of  relatives : 

Dionysius  aufugit,  is  est  in  provincift,  Dionysius  hat  fled,  he  is  in  the 
province.  Cic.  Is  qul  satis  habet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  Eadem  audlre 
inalunt,  they  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.  Liv. 

1.  The  pronoun  is,  the  weakest  of  the  demonstratives,  is  often  understood,  especially 
before  a  relative  or  a  Genitive: 

Flubat  pater  de  filii  morte,  de  patris  filius,  the  father  wept  over  the  death  of  the  son, 
the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.  See  also  445,  6. 

1  Thui,  in  the  last  example,  haec  refers  to  eerta  pax  as  the  more  prominent  object 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  as  he  is  setting  forth  the  advantage*  of  a  mire  pence  over  n 
hoped-for  victory. 

4  For  other  examples,  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  I.,  8;  III.,  490;  and  XI.,  809.  For  the  use  of 
personal  pronouns  with  ytiflfm,  see  446,  not*  1, 


250  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

I.  /«,  with  a  conjunction,  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English,  and  that  loo. 
and  that  indeed : 

Unam  rein  explicabd,  eamque  maximam,  one  thing  I  will  eseplain,  and  that  too  a 
most  important  one.  Cic.  Audire  Cratippum,  idque  Athenis,  to  hear  Oratippus,  and 
that  too  at  Athens.1  Cic. 

8.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered  also,  at  the  same  time,  at  once,  both,  yet: 

Nihil  utile,  quod  non  idem  honestum,  nothing  useful,  which  is  not  also  honorable. 
Cic.  Cum  dicat,  negat  Idem,  though  he  asserts,  he  yet  denies  (the  same  denies).  Cic 
R5x  Anius,  rex  Idem  hominum  Phoeblque  sacerdos,  King  Anius,  both  king  of  men  and 
priest  of  Apollo.  Verg. 

4.  Is — qul  means  he— who,  sucfi — as,  such — that; 

II  sumus,  qui  esse  debemus,  ice  are  such  as  we  ought  to  be.  Cic.  Ea  est  gens  quae 
neseiat,  Hie  race  is  such  that  it  knows  not.  Liv. 

6.  Idem — qul  means  the  same— who,  the  same— as;  Idem — ac  (atque,  et,  que),  Idem 
— ut,  Idem — cum  with  the  Ablative,  the  same— as: 

Eidem  mores,  qul,  the  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  Idem  ac  fuit,  he  is  the 
same  as  he  was.  Ter.  Eodem  mecum  patre  genitus,  the  son  of  the  same  father  a«  I 
(with  me).  Tac. 

6.  For  the  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  is  and  sul  in  subordinate  clauses,  see  449, 1,  2). 

452.  Ipse  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  self: 
Ipse  Pater  fiilmina  molltur,  the  Father  himself  (Jupiter)  hurls  the  thunder- 
bolts. Verg.     Ipse a  dlxit,  he  himself  said  it.   Cic.    Ipse  Caesar,  Caesar  him- 
self. Cic.    Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custodies,  see  tJiat  you  guard  yourself.   Cic. 

1.  Ipse  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or  object,  but  with  a  prefer- 
ence for  the  subject : 

Me  ipse  consoler,  /  myself  (not  another)  console  myself.  Cic.  Ipse  se  quisque  dlli- 
git,  every  one  (himself)  loves  himself.  Cic.  Se  ipsum  interfecit,  he  killed  himself.  Tac. 

NOTE. — Ipse  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  secum,  'with  himself,1  'alone,'  or  by  per 
se,  'by  himself,1  'unaided,1  'in  and  of  himself,1  etc.: 

Aliud  genitor  seeum  ipse  volutat,  the  father  (Jupiter)  himself  alone  ponders  an- 
other plan.  Verg.  Quod  est  rectum  ipsumque  per  se  laudabile,  which  is  right,  and  in 
and  of  itself  prai&eicorthy.  Cic. 

2.  Ipse  is  ofte«i  best  rendered  by  very  : 
Ipse  file  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

8.  With  numerals,  ipse  means  just  so  many,  just;  so  also  in  nunc  ipsum,  'just  at 
this  time';  turn  ipsum,  'jnst  at  that  time1: 

Trlgtnta  die's  ipsl,  just  thirty  days.  Cic.  Nunc  ipsum  sine  t6  esse  n6n  possum,  jttst 
at  this  time  I  cannot  be  without  you.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  ofoicn,  one1*  own: 

Nostra  ipsoruin  amlcitia,  our  own  friendship.  Cic.    See  398,  3. 

6.  Ipse  in  a  subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the  principal  subject,  like  an  em- 
phatic sul  or  suus : 

Legates  nrtsit  qul  ipsl  vitam  peterent,  fie  sent  mexfiengers  to  ask  life  for  himself.  Sail. 

6.  Et  ipse  and  ipse  quoque  may  often  be  rendered  also,  likewise,  even  he:3 

Alius  Achilles  natus  et  ipse  dea,  another  Achilles  likewise  (lit.,  himself  also)  born 
of  a  goddess.  Verg. 


1  Id,  thus  used,  *>f**n  refers  to  a  clause,  or  to  the  general  thought,  as  in  this  example. 
1  Applied  to  P7taiKO*8«  by  hi*  disciples.    Ipse  is  often  thus  used  of  «  superior,  ai 
of  a  master,  teac-ier,  et«. 

'  Compare  the  Greek  <.<u  ovrrfy. 


UKE   OF  PRONOUNS.  251 

T.  For  the  use  of  the  Nominative  ipse  in  connection  with  the  Ablative  Absolute,  gee 
131,  note  3. 

453.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. — The  relative  is  often  used  where 
the-  English  idiom  requires  a  demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun  ; 
sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  : 

Res  loquitur  ipsa,  quae  semper  valet,  the  fact  itself  speaks,  and  thin 
(which)  ever  has  weight.  Cic.  Qul  proelium  committunt,  they  engage  in  bat- 
tle. Caes.  Quae  curu  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic. 

1.  RELATIVES  and  DEMONSTRATIVES  are  often  correlatives  to  each  other. 
hie — qui,  isle — qui,  etc.     These  combinations  generally  retain  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  separate  words,  but  see  is — qui,  Idem — qvi,  451,  4  and  5. 

NOTE.— The  neuter  quidquid,1  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  a  Geni- 
tive, may  be  used  of  persons  : 

Matres  et  quidquid  tecum  invalidum  est  delige,  select  the  mothers  and  whatever 
f'tble  persons  there  are  with  you  (lit ,  whatever  there  is  with  you  feeble).  Verg. 
Quidquid  erat  patrum,  whatever  fathers  there  were.  Ldv.  See  also  397,  8,  note  6. 

2.  In  Two  SUCCESSIVE  CLAUSES,  the  relative  may  be — (1)  expressed  in 
both,  (2)  expressed  in  the  first  and  omitted  in  the  second,  (3)  expressed  in 
the  first  and  followed  by  a  demonstrative  in  the  second  . 

Nos  qui  sermon!  mm  interfuisscmus  et  quibus  Cotta  sententias  tradidisset,  we  who 
had  not  been  present  at  Vie  conversation,  and  to  whom  Cotta  had  reported  Vie  opin- 
ion*. Cic.  Dumnorlx  qui  principatum  obtinebat  ac  plGbi  accepcus  erat,  Dumnoriae,  w/w 
held  the  chief  authority,  and  who  was  acceptable  to  the  common  people.  Caes.  Quae 
oec  haberemus  nee  his  uterumur,  which  ire  should  neither  have  nor  use.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Several  relatives  may  appear  in  successive  clauses : 

Omrit's  qui  vestltum,  qui  tecta,  qui  cultum  vitae,  qui  praesidia  contra  feras  inTfinti- 
rnnt,  all  who  introduced  (invented)  clothing,  houses,  the  refinements  of  life,  protec- 
tion against  wild  oeaxts.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — A  relative  clause  with  in  is  often  equivalent  to  a  substantive  :  il  qui  au- 
•iiunt  =  audltorex,  '  hearers.1 

3.  Two  RELATIVES  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Art£s  quas  qui  tenent,  arts,  whose  possessors  (which  who  possess).  Cic. 

4.  A  RELATIVE  CLAUSE  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Ablative  vfithprO: 
SperO,  quae  tna  prudentia  est,  te  valere.  I  hope  you  are  well,  such  is  your  prudence 

<which  is,  et<:.).  (Me. 

NOTE.—  Quae  tua  prudentia  est  —  qua  es  prudentia  =  pro  tua  prfidentia,  means  ««<•/< 
is  your  prudence,  or  you  are  of  such  prudence,  or  in  accordance  with  your  pru- 
dence, etc. 

6.  RELATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVE. — Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the  ante- 
cedent, especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numerals,  sometimes  stand 
in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the  relative : 

Vusa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  most  beautiful  vessel*  which  he  had  seen  (ves- 
sels, which  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen).  Cic.  DC  servls  siriB,  quern  habuit  fidglissi- 
mum,  mlgit,  he  sent  the  most  faithful  of  the  slaves  that  he  had.  Nep. 

6.  The  neuter,  quod,  used  as  an  adverbial  Accusative,  often  stands  at  the  beginning 

1  Of  the  ireneral  or  Indefinite  relative  quisqui*. 


252  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

of  a  sentence  or  clause,  especially  before  si,  nl,  nisi,  etsi,  and  sometimes  before  i/nia, 
quoniam,  utinam,  etc.,  to  indicate  a  close  connection  with  what  precedes.  In  trans- 
lating it  is  sometimes  best  omitted,  and  sometimes  best  rendered  by  now,  in  fact,  but, 
and  : 

Quod  si  ceciderint,  but  if  th«y  should  fall.1  Cic.  Quod  si  ego  reset vissein  id  prius, 
now  if  J  had  learned  this  sooner. '  Ter. 

7.  Qul  dlcitur,  qul  vocutur,  or  the  corresponding  active,  quern  dicunt,  quern  vacant 
are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  so-called,  the  to-called;  what  they  or  you  call,  etc. : 

Vestra  quae  dlcitur  vita,  mors  est,  your  so-called  life  (lit.,  your,  ivhich  is  called 
life)  is  death.  Cic.  Lex  ista  qunin  vocas  non  est  lox,  that  law,  as  you  call  if,  is  not  e» 
law.  Cic. 

454.  INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. — The    Interrogative    quis   is 
used  substantively  ;  qul,  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum,  ivTio  am  If  Cic.  Quid  faciet,  what  will  Tie  do?  Cic  Qul 
vir  fuit,  what  kind  of  a  man  was  he  f  Cic. 

1.  Occasionally  quis  is  used  adjectively  and  qul  substantively  : 

Quis  rex  unquam  fuit,  what  king  teas  there  ever  ?  Cic.  Qul  sis,  considers,  consider 
who  you  are.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  neuter,  quid,  is  sometimes  used  of  persons;  see  397,  3,  note  5. 

2.  QOID,  why,  how  is  it  that,  etc.,  is  often  used  adverbially  (378,  2),  or  stands  ap- 
parently unconnected : 2  quid,  'why?'  'what?'  quid  enim,  'why  then?'  'what  then?' 
'what  indeed?'   quid  ita,  'why  so?1   quid  quod,  'what  of  the  fact  that?'   quid  si, 
'  what  if? ' : 

Quid  venisti,  ichy  have  you  come?  Plaut.  Quid  enim?  metusne  conturbet,  what 
then  t  would  fear  disturb  its  ?  Cic.  Quid  quod  dcOwtantur,  wtuit  of  Hie  fact  that  they 
are  delighted  t  Cic. 

8.  Two  INTEEEOGATIVKS  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Quis  quern  fraudavit,  u'ho  defrauded,  and  whom  did  he  defraud  (lit.,  who  de- 
frauded whom)  1  Cic. 
'  4.  Tantus  sometimes  accompanies  the  interrogative  pronoun : 

Quae  fuit  unquam  in  Gilo  homine  tanta  cfmstantio,  was  there  ever  so  great  constancy 
in  any  man  f  Cic. 

455.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.* — Aliquis,  quis,  qul,  and  quispiam, 
are  all  indefinite — some  one,  any  one : 

Est  aliquis,  there  is  some  one.  Liv.  Sensus  aliquis  esse  potest,  there  may 
be  some  sensation.  Cic.  Dixit  quis,  some  one  said.  Cic.  Si  quis  rex,  if  any 
king.  Cic.  Alia  ros  quaepiam,  any  other  thing.  Cic. 

1.  Quix  and  qul  are  used  chiefly  after  «5,  ni«i,  ne.  and  num.    Aliquis  and  qui*  are 
generally  used  substantively,  uligui  and  qul  adjectively.     Aliquix  and  aliqul  after  si 
nisi,  etc.,  are  emphatic: 

91  est  aliqui  sensus  in  morte,  if  there  is  any  sensation  ichaterer  in  death.  Cic. 

2.  Nescid  quis  and  ne«ci6  qu>  often  supply  the  place  of  indefinite  pronouns  : 

1  Here  quod  refers  to  something  that  precedes,  and  means  in  reference  to  which,  in 
reference  to  this,  in  this  connection,  etc.  For  other  examples,  see  Caesar,  B.  G.,  I.,  14, 
and  VII.,  88. 

4  In  some  instances  quid  is  readily  explained  by  the  ellipsis  of  some  form  of  did 
-jr  of  sum. 

3  For  •  full  illustration  of  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  87-108. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  253 

Nescid  quis  loquitur,  tome  one  speaks  (lit.,  I  know  not  who  speaks,  or  one  speak*, 
I  know  not  icho).  Plaut.  Nesci6  quid  mihi  animus  praesagit  mall,  my  mind  forebode* 
gome  evil  (191,  note).  Ter. 

456.  Quldam,  '  a  certain  one, '  is  less  indefinite  than  aliquis : 
Quldam  rhetor  antiquus,  a  certain  ancient  rhetorician.   Cic.     Accurrit  qul- 

dain,  a  certain  one  runs  up.    Hor. 

1.  Qutdam  with  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  statement: 
Justitia  miriflca  quaedam  videtur,  justice  seems  somewhat  wonderful.  Cic. 

2.  Quidam  with  quasi,  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  of  a  certain,  a  kind 
of,  as  it  irere  : 

Quasi  alumna  quaedam,  a  certain  foster-child,  as  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisquam  and  ullus  are  used  chiefly  in  negative  and  con- 
ditional sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  nega- 
tive : 

Neque  me  quisquam  agnovit,  nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  Si  quis- 
quam,  if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  cSnsSs  ullum  animal  esse,  do  you  think  there  its 
any  animal  f  Cic. 

1.  NfmH  is  the  negative  of  quisquam,  and  like  quisquam  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively,  rarely  adjectively : 

Neminem  laesit,  he  harmed  no  one.  Cic.    Nem6  poeta,  110  poet.  Cic. 

2.  Nftllus  is  the  negative  of  ullus,  and  is  generally  used  adjectively,  but  it  sometimes 
supplies  the  Genitive  and  Ablative  of  nemo,  which  generally  wants  those  cases : 

Nil  Hum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.    Nullius  aures.  the  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 

8.  Nfillus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non: 

N iillus  venlt,  he  did  not  come.  Cic.    MortuI  null!  sunt,  tfie  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

458.  Qmvis,  qmlibet,   'any  one  whatever,'  and  quisque,  'every 
one,'  'each  one,'  are  general  indefinites  (190): 

Quaelibet  res,  anything.  Cic.  Tuorutn  quisque  necessflriorum,  each  out 
of  your  friend*.  Cic. 

1.  Quinqite  with  superlatives  and  ordinals  is  generally  best  rendered  by  all,  or  by 
ever,  always ;  with  primus  by  tttnj,  posnilile  : 

Epicureos  doctissiinus  quisque  contemnit,  all  the  most  learned  despise  the  Kfricn- 
reans,  or  the  moxt  learned  ever  de-spise,  etc.  Cic.  Primo  quftque  die,  the  earliest  day 
jiossible,  the  veryfrst.  Cic. 

2.  Ut  quisqne—ifa  with  the  superlative  in  both  clauses  is  often  best  rendered,  tlit 
more — the  more  : 

Ut  quisque  sibl  plurimum  confidit,  ita  maxim^  excellit,  the  more  one  conjid**  in 
•jne's  self,  tli«  more  one  easels.  Cic. 

459.  Alms  means  'another,  other' ;  filter,  'the  one,'  'the  other1 
(of  two),  'the  second,'  '  a  second. '     They  are  often  repeated  :  alini 
— alius,  one — another  ;  alii — alii,  some — others  ;  alter — alter,  the 
one — the  other  ;  alteri — alterl,  the  one  party — the  other  : 

Legates  alium  ab  alio  aggreditur,  he  tampers  with  the  ambassadors  one  after 
another.  Sail.  Alii  gloriae  scrviunt,  alii  pecuniae,  some  are  slaves  to  glory, 
others  to  money.  Cic.  Quidquid  negat  alter,  et  alter,  whatever  one  denies,  tkt 


254  AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS. 

other  denies.  Hor.  Alter  erit  Tiphys,  there  will  be  a  second  Tipht/s.  Verg 
Tu  mine  eris  alter  ab  illo,  you  will  now  be  next  after  him.  Verg.  Alter! 
dimicant,  alterl  timent,  one  party  contend*,  the  other  fears.  Cic. 

1.  Alius  or  alter  repeated  in  different  cases,  or  combined  with  alias  or  aliter,  often 
involves  an  ellipsis : 

Alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt,  they  advanced  the  state,  one  in  one  way,  another 
4n  another.  Liv.  Aliter  alii  vlvunt,  some  lite  in  one  way,  others  in  another.  Cic. 

2.  After  minx,  aliter,  and  the  like,  atque,  ac,  and  et  often  mean  than: 
Non  alius  essem  atque  sum,  /  would  not  be  ofier  than  1  am.    Cic. 

8.  When  alter— alter  refer  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  alter  usually 
refers  to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  either  : 

Iniimciis.  competitor,  cum  altero — cum  altero,  an  enemy,  a  rival,  wiih  the  latter — 
u>ith  the  former.  Cic. 

4.  Dterque  means  both,  each  of  two.  In  the  plural  it  generally  means  both,  each  of 
two  parties,  but  sometimes  both,  each  of  faco  persons  or  things ;  regularly  so  with  nouns 
which  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense: 

Utrique  victoriam  cruduliter  exercebant,  both  parties  made  it  cruel  wse  of  victory 
S»1L  Palmas  utrasque  tetendit,  he  extended  both  his  hands.  Verg. 


CHAPTER    V. 
SYNTAX   OF   VERBS. 


SECTION    I. 

AGREEMENT    OF    VERBS.— USE    OF    VOICES. 

RULE  XXXVI.— Agreement  of  Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  NUMBER 
and  PERSON  : 

Deus  mundum  aedificSvit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Ego  rgggs 
ej6cl,  v8s  tyrannos  introducitis,  /  have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  ty- 
rants. Cic. 

1.  PARTICIPLES  IN  COMPOUND  TENSES  agree  with  the  subject  according 
to  438.  See  also  301,  1  and  2  : 

ThebanI  accusati  aunt,  the  Thebans  were  accused.   Cic. 

N«>TE  1.— In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  the  participle  in  urn  sometimes 
•ccurs  without  any  reference  to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject: 

Uiffidentia  futurum  quae  imperavisset,  from  doubt  that  those  things  which  he  had 
oommanded  would  take  place.  Sail. 

NOTE  2. — A  General  or  Indefinite  subject  is  often  denoted — 

1)  By  the  First  or  Third  Person  Plural,  and  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Second  Person 


AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS.  255 

Singular :  dicimut, '  we  (people)  say';  dlcunt,  'they  say';  dicds,  'you  (any  on«)  may 
*ay': 

81  beat!  esse  volumus,  if  we  wish  to  be  happy.  Cic.  Agere  quod  «gas  considerate 
decet,  you  (one)  should  do  considerately  whatever  you  do  (one  does).  Cic. 

2)  By  an  Impersonal  Passive: 

Ad  fanum  concurritur,  they  rush  to  the  temple.  Cic.  Nisi  cum  virtute  vlvatur,  un- 
less they  live  (unless  one  lives)  virtuously.  Cic. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  Pronominal  Subject  contained  in  the  verb,  see  368,  2. 

NOTB  4. — For  the  OMISSION  OF  THE  VERB,  see  368,  3. 

461.  SYNESIS. — Sometimes  the  predicate  is  construed  accord 
ing  to  the  real  meaning  of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammat- 
ical gender  or  number.     Thus — 

1.  With  collective  nouns,  pars,  multitude,  and  the  like : 

Multitude  abeunt,  the  multitude  depart.  Liv.  Pars  per  agros  dllapsl,  a 
part  (some)  dispersed  through  the  fields.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — Here  multitude  and/>rtr«,  though  singular  and  feminine  in  form,  are  plu- 
ral and  masculine  in  sense;  see  also  438,  6.  Conversely,  the  Imperative  singular  may  b» 
used  in  addressing  a  multitude  individually: 

Adde  defectionena  Siciliae,  add  (to  this,  soldiers)  the  revolt  of  Sicily.  Liv. 

NOTB  2.— Of  two  verbs  with  the  same  collective  noun,  the  former  is  often  e/ingula* 
and  the  latter  plural  : 

Juventus  ruit  certantque,  the  youth  ninh  forth  and  contend.  Verg. 

2.  With  mllia,  often  masculine  in  sense : 

CaesI  sunt  tria  mllia,  three  thousand  men  were  slain.   Liv. 

3.  With  quisque,  ulerque,  alius — alium,  alter — altemvm,  and  the  like : 
Uterque  educunt,  they  each  lead  out.   Caes.     Alter  alterum  videmus,  we 

see  each  other.   Cic. 

4.  With  singular  subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum  : 

Dux  cum  prlncipibus  capiuntur,  the  leader  with  his  chiefs  is  taken.  Liv. 
Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  ( =  tot  homines')  ine&dunt,  why  are  so  many  men 
f&ming  hither  f  Plaut.  See  also  438,  6. 

5.  With  partim — partim  in  the  sense  of  pars — pars:  ' 

Bonorum  partim  necessaria,  partim  nfin  necessaria  sunt,  of  good  things 
tome  are  necessary,  others  are  not  necessary.  Cic. 

462.  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject,  but  with 
an  APPOSITIVE  or  with  a  PREDICATE  NOUN  : 

Volsinil,  oppidum  Tuscoruni,  concrematum  est,  Volsinii,  a  town  of  the 
Tuscans,  10 as  burned.  Plin.  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  eat  dlcenda,  not  every 
error  should  he  catted  folly.  Cic.  Puerl  Trojanum  dicitur  agmen,  the  boys  are 
called  the  Trojan  band.  Verg. 

NOTE  1. — The  verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  that  is  urbs,  oppidum, 
or  ciritds,  in  apposition  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

NOTE  2.— The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  em- 
phatic than  the  subject,  as  in  the  tocond  example. 


256  AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS. 

Nor*  8. — The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a  noun  in  a  subordinate  clause  after  yuan-. 
« i.w,  etc. : 

Nihil  aliud  nisi  pax  quaesita  est,  nothing  but  peace  -was  sought.  Cic. 

463.  With  TWO  OR  MORE  SUBJECTS  the  verb  agrees — 

I.  With  one  subject,  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aut  mores  spectari  aut  fortuna  solet,  either  character  or  fortune  it  wont  to 
be  regarded.  Cic.  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Komam  conditam,  Hornet 
and  Hesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the  plural 
number : 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perierunt,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished.  Cic.  Ego  et 
Cicerd  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cio.  Tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  you  and 
Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

1.  With  SUBJECTS  DIFFERING  IN  PERSON,  the  verb  takes  the  first  person 
rather  than  the  second,  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  see  examples. 

2.  For  PARTICIPLES  IN  COMPOUND  TENSES,  see  439. 

3.  Two  SUBJECTS  AS  A  UNIT. — Two  singular  subjects  forming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a  singular  verb  : 

Senatus  populusque  intellegit,  the  senate  and  people  (5.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  necessitasque  postulat,  time  and  necessity 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.  Cic. 

4.  WITH  AUT  OR  NEC. — When  the  subjects  connected  by  aut,  vel,  nee, 
neque  or  sen,  differ  in  person,  the  verb  is  usually  in  the  plural ;  but  when  they 
are  of  the  same  person,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject: 

Haec  neque  ego  neque  tu  fOcimus,  neither  you  nor  1  have  done  these  things. 
Ter.  Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  either  Brutus  or  Cassius  judged.  Cic. 

464.  VOICES. — "With  transitive  verbs,  a  thought  may  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  writer  be  expressed  either  actively  or  passively.     But — 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  construction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ;  and — 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive with  a  or  ab  for  persona,  and  in  the  Ablative  alone  for  things  (415, 1. ;  420): 

Deus  omnia  constituit,  God  ordained  all  things.  A  Deo  onmia  constituta 
aunt,  all  things  were  ordained  by  God.  Cic.  Dei  providentia  mundum  ad- 
ministrat,  the  providence  of  God  rules  the  world.  Dei  providentia  mundus 
administratur,  the  world  it  ruled  by  the  providence  of  God.  Cic. 

465.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE,  like  the  Greek  Middle,1  is  sometimes 
equivalent  to  the  Active  with  a  reflexive  pronoun  : 

Lavantur  in  fluminibus,  they  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in.  the  rivers.   Caes. 

1  Most  Passive  forms  once  had  both  a  Middle  and  a  Paxsive  meaning,  as  in  Greek: 
but  in  Latin  the  Middle  or  Reflexive  meaning  has  nearly  disappeared,  though  retained 
to  a  certain  extent  in  special  verbi 


TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE.  257 

Non  hie  victoria  vertitur,  not  upon  this  point  (here)  does  •victory  turn  ( turn 
itself;.  Verg. 

1.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  (193)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  but 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive : 

Curritur  ad  praetorium,  they  run  to  the  praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 
Mihi  cum  ils  vivendum  est,  I  must  live  with  them.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Verbs  which  are  usually  intransitive  are  occasionally  used  transitively,  ep 
pecially  in  poetry : 

Ego  cur  invideor,  why  am  I  envied  ?  Hor. 

2.  DEPONENT  VERBS,  though  passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transitive 
or  intransitive : 

Illud  inirabar,  /  admired  that.  Cic.  Ab  urbe  proficlscl,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— Originally  many  deponent  verbs  seem  to  have  had  the  force  of  the  Greek 
Middle  voice  :  glfirior,  'I  boast  myself,'  '  I  boast';  vescor, '  I  feed  myself.' 

NOTE  2.— SEMI-DEPONENTS  have  some  of  the  active  forms  and  some  of  the  passive, 
without  change  of  meaning;  see  268,  3. 

SECTION    II. 

THE    INDICATIVE    AND    ITS   TENSES. 

I.  PRESENT  INDICATIVE. 

466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of  the  veii> 
as  taking  place  at  the  present  tune : 

Ego  et  Cicer6  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Hfc  te  rogo,  I  ask  you 
for  this.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  Present  of  the  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation  denotes  an  intended  01 
future  action ;  that  of  the  Passive,  a  present  necessity  or  duty : 

Bellum  script  urus  sum,  /  intend  to  write,  the  history  of  the  war.1  Sail.  Legend uu 
ert  We  orator,  this  orator  ought  to  be  read.1  Cic. 

467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used— 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at  the  present 
time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  belonging  to  all  time,  belong  of 
course  to  the  present,  as  general  truths  and  customs: 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cio. 
Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat,/or^«w«  helps  the  brave.  Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for  effect,  to 
picture  before  the  reader  as  present.     The  Present,  when  so  used,  is  called 
the  Historical  Present : 

1  Scriplfirvt  sum  may  be  variously  rendered,  /  intend  to  write,  am  about  to  write, 
am  to  trritf,  am  (le*tine>t  to  irritt,  etc. ;  leyendus  ett  means  he  ouyfit  to  be  read,  <f# 
*»rt>«*  to  b»  read,  mu*t  be  read,  etc. 


258  TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 

Jugurtha  vallft  moenia  circumdat,  Jugurtha  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
rampart.  Sail. 

1.  The  HISTORICAL  PRESENT  is  used  much  more  freely  in  Latin  than  in 
English.     It  is  therefore  generally  best  rendered  by  a  past  tense. 

2.  The  Present  is  often  used  of  a  present  action  which  has  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  after  jamdiu,  jamdudum,  etc. : 

Jamdiu  !gn6ro  quid  agas,  /  have  not  known  for  a  long  time  what  you  have 
te»n  doing.  Cic. 

3.  The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  may  be  used  of  authors  whose 
works  are  extant : 

XenophOn  facit  Socratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates  dis- 
cussing. Cic. 

4.  With  dum,  '  while,'  the  Present  is  generally  used,  whether  the  action 
is  present,  past,  or  future : 

Dura  ea  parant,1  Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  while  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations,  Saguntum  was  attacked.  Liv.  Dum  haec  geruntur,  Caa 
•art  nuntiatum  est,  while  these  things  were  taking  place,  it  was  announced  to 
Caesar.  Caes. 

NOTE. — But  with  dum,  meaning  as  long  as,  the  Present  can  be  used  only  of  pnser>i 
time. 

5.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action  really  future,  especially  in 
animated  discourse  and  in  conditions : 

Quam  prendimus  arcem,  what  stronghold  do  we  seize,  or  are  we  to  seize  f  Verg. 
Si  vincimuB,  omnia  tuta  erunt,  if  we  conquer,  all  things  will  be  safe.  Sail. 

6.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : 
Virtutem  accendit,  he  tries  to  kindle  their  valor.   Verg.    Quid  me  terre* 

why  do  you  try  to  terrify  me  ?  Verg. 

II.  IMPERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

468.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  taking 
place  in  past  time  : 

Stabant  nobilissimi  juvenes,  there  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble  youths. 
Liv.  Colles  oppidum  cingebant,  hills  encompassed  the  town.  Caes.  Moturus 
exercitum  erat,  Ite  was  intending  to  move  his  army.  Liv. 

NOTE. — For  the  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences, 
see  511,  2 

469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially — 

I.  In  lively  description,  whether  of  scenes  or  events : 

Ante  oppidum  planities  patebat,  before  the  town  extended  a  plain.  Caes. 
Fulgentes  gladios  videbant,  they  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming  swords.  Cic. 

II.  Of  customary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  rendered  wa& 
wont,  etc. : 

1  Here  the  time  denoted  by  parant  is  present  relatively  to  oppugnabalwr,  and  ther* 
fore  really  past. 


TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE.  259 

Paiwanias  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  Pamanias  was  wont  to  banquet  in 
the  Persian  style.  Nep. 

1.  The  Iinpeifect  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action:  • 
Sedabant  tumultus,  they  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.   Liv. 

2.  The  Imperfect  is  often  used  of  a  past  action  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  vf'iihjamdiu,jamdudum,  etc.  : ' 

Domicilium  Romae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  already  for  many 
years  had  his  residence  at  Rome.  Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  uses  the  Imperfect  where  the  English  requires  the 
Present : * 

Pastum  animantibus  natura  eum  qul  cuique  aptus  erat,  comparavit,  nature 
has  prepared  for  animals  that  food  which  is  adapted  to  each.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Imperfect  in  LETTERS,  see  472, 1. 
NOTE  2.— For  the  Descriptive  Imperfect  in  NARRATION,  see  471,  6. 
NOTE  3.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PROPRIETY,  NECESSITY, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

III.  FUTURE  INDICATIVE. 

470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  one  which 
will  take  place  in  future  time  : 

Sen  bam  ad  te,  /  shall  write  to  you.  Cio.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  wt  shaft 
never  go  astray.  Cic. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  the  Future  Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of 
«n  Imperative : 

Curabis  et  scribes,  you  will  take  care  and  write.   Cic. 

2.  Actions  which  really  belong  to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  ex- 
pressed by  the  Future  tense,  though  sometimes  put  in  the  Present  in  English  • 

Naturam  si  sequS  mur,  nunquam  aberrabimus,  if  we  follow  nature,  we  shaU 
ntvtr  go  astray.  Cic. 

IV.  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses: 

I.  As  the  PRESENT  PERFECT  or  PERFECT  DEFINITE,  it  represents 
the  action  as  at  present  completed,  and  is  rendered  by  our  Perfect 
with  have  : 

De  genere  belli  dixl,  /  have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war.   Cic. 

II.  As  the  HISTORICAL  PERFECT  or  PERFECT  INDEFINITE,  it  rep- 
resents the  action  simply  as  an  historical  fact : 

1  Observe  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  Present  reappear  in  the  Imperfect.  This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  these  two  tenses  are  precisely  alike  in  representing  the  action  in  its 
progrew,  and  that  thfy  differ  only  in  time.  The  one  views  the  action  in  the  present,  the 
Other  transfers  it  to  the  past. 

*  This  occurs  occasionally  in  the  statement  of  general  truths  and  in  the  description 
of  natural  scenes,  but  in  such  cases  the  truth  or  the  scene  is  viewed  not  from  th«  present 
but  from  the  pant. 


260  TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE. 

Miltiadei  est  accusatus,  MiUiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Quid  facturt  falatiB, 
what  did  you  intend  to  do,  or  what  would  you  have  done?  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Perfect  of  the  F  ariphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences,  see 
476,  1. 

1.  The  Perfect  i8  sometimes  used — 

1)  Instead  of  the  Present  to  denote  the  suddenness  of  the  action: 

Terra  tremit,  mortalia  corda  stravit  pavor,  the  earth  trembles,  fear  over- 
whelms (has  overwhelmed)  the  hearts  of  mortals.  Verg. 

2)  To  contrast  the  past  with  the  present,  implying  that  what  was  true  then 
is  not  true  now : 

Habuit,  non  habet,  he  had,  but  has  not.   Cic.     Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  was.  Verg. 

2.  The  Perfect  Indicative  with  paene,  prope,  may  often  be  rendered  by 
might,  would,  or  by  the  Pluperfect  Indicative : 

Brutum  non  minus  amO,  paene  dixi,  quam  to,  /  love  Brutus  not  less,  I 
might  almost  say,  or  /  had  almost  said,  than  I  love  you.  Cic. 

8.  The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the 
English  uses  the  Present  and  Imperfect,  especially  in  repeated  actions,  and 
in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297) : 

Meminit  praeteritfirum,  he  remembers  >  the  past.  Cic.  Cum  ad  vlllam  veni, 
hoc  me  delectat,  when  I  come  (have  come)  to  a  villa,  this  pleases  me.  Cic. 
Meinineram  Paullum,  /  remembered  Paullus.  Cic. 

•4.  Conjunctions  meaning  as  soon  as "  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect ; 
sometimes  by  the  Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.  But  the  Pluperfect  is 
sometimes  used,  especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action : 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell,  or  had  fallen.  Verg. 
His  ubi  natum  prOsequitur 3  dictls,  when  he  had  addressed  his  son  with  these 
words.  Verg.  Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.*  Cic, 
Anno  tertio  postquam  profugerat,  *'/*  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

5.  In  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  after  cum  (quum),  si,  etc.,  the  Perfect  is  some- 
times used  of  REPEATED  AOTIOKS,  GENERAL  TRUTHS,  and  CUSTOMS  :  • 

Cum  ad  vlllam  veni,  hoc  me  delectat,  whenever  I  come  (have  come)  to  a 
villa,  this  delights  me.  Oic. 

NOTE. — la  such  cases  the  principal  clause  generally  retains  the  Present,  as  in  the 
example  just  given,  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  sometimes  admits  the  Perfect : 

Tulit  pnnctutn  qul  miscuit  utile  dulcl,  he  wins  (has  won)  favor  who  combines  (has 
eombined)  the  useful  with  the  agreeable.  Hor. 

6.  In  ANIMATED  NARRATIVE,  the  Perfect  usually  narrates  the  leading  events, 
and  the  Imperfect  describes  the  attendant  circumstances : 

Cultum  mutavit,  vcste  Medica  utebatur,  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  he 
changed  his  mode  of  life,  used  the  Median  dress,  feasted  in  the  Persian  style. 

1  Literally,  has  recalled,  and  so  remembers,  as  the  result  of  the  act.  The  Latin  pr* 
tents  the  completed  act,  the  English  the  result. 

4  As  postquam,  ubl,  ubl  prlmum,  ut,  ut  prlmum,  simiti  atque  (ac),  etc. 

*  Historical  present;  lit.,  when  he  attends. 

*  And  so  was  then  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

*  This  use  of  the  Latin  Perfect  corresponds  to  the  Gnomic  Aoritt  in  Greek 


TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE.  261 

Nep.  Se  in  oppida  receperunt  murtsque  86  tenebant,  they  betook  t/umtelve» 
into  their  towns  and  Jeept  themselves  within  their  walls.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  Compound  Tenses  in  the  Passive  often  denote  the  result  of  the  action. 
Thus,  doctus  est  may  mean  either  he  has  been  instructed,  or  he  is  a  learned  man  (lit., 
an  instructed,  man) : 

Fuit  doctus  ex  disciplina  Stoicorum,  he  was  instructed  in  (lit.,  out  of)  the  learning 
<tf  the  Stoics.  Oic.  Navis  parata  fuit,  the  vessel  was  ready  (lit.,  was  prepared).  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Perfect  in  LETTERS,  see  472,  1. 

NOTE  3. — For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PBOPBIBTY,  NECESSITY. 
•  tc.,  see  476,  4. 

V.  PLUPERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time  : 

Pyrrhl  temporibus  jam  Apollo  versus  facere  desierat,  in  the  times  of  Pyr- 
rhus  Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  make  verses.1  Cic.  Copias  quits  pr6  castrts 
collocaverat,  reduxit,  he  led  back  the  forces  which  he  had  stationed  before  the 
camp.  Cue*.  Cum  esset  Demosthenes,  multl  Oratores  dart  fuerunt  et  antea 
fuerant,  when,  Demosthenes  lived  there  were  many  illustrious  orators,  and  there 
had  been  before.  Cic. 

1.  In  LETTERS,  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  tune  of  the  reader, 
using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  of  present  actions  and  events,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect of  those  which  are  past : " 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scrlberem ;  ad  tuas  omn6s  epistulas  reecripseram 
prldie,3 1  have  (had)  nothing  to  write;  I  replied  to  all  your  letters  yesterday. 
Cic.  Prldie  Idas  haec  scripsl;  eodi63apud  Pomponium  eram  cenaturus,4 
I  write  this  on  the  day  before  the  Ides  ;  I  am  going  to  dine  to-day  with  Pom- 
ponies.  Cic. 

2.  The  PLUPERFECT  after  cum,  si,  etc.,  is  often  used  of  REPEATED  ACTIONS, 
GENERAL  TRUTHS,  and  CUSTOMS  :  * 

Si  hostf-s  deterrere  nequlverant  circumveniebaut,  {f  they  were  (had  been) 
unable  *  to  deter  the  enemy,  they  surrounded  them.  Sail. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Pluperfect  in  the  sense  of  the  English  Imperfect,  see  471,  8. 
NOTE  2. — For  the  ffistorical  Tetixes  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PROPRIETY,  NECESSITY, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

1  Observe  that  rletierat  represents  the  action  as  already  completed  at  the  time  deslg 
nated. 

''  This  change  is  by  no  means  uniformly  made,  but  is  subject  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
writer.  It  is  most  common  near  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  letters. 

8  Observe  that  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  expressions  are  also  adapted  to  the  tim» 
of  the  reader.  Iltr'i,  'yesterday,'  becomes  to  the  reader pridit,  'the  day  before ' — i.  «., 
the  day  before  the  writing  of  the  letter.  In  the  same  way  hodif,  'to-day,'  'THIS  day,'  be- 
comes to  the  reader  tf>  flit,  'THAT  day.' 

*  The  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  Is  sometimes  thus  used  of  futurt 
•vents  which  are  expected  to  happen  before  the  receipt  of  the  letter.    Events  whieh  will 
be  future  to  the  reader  as  well  as  to  the  writer  must  be  expressed  by  the  Future. 

8  See  the  similar  use  of  the  Perfect,  471,  6. 

•  Th»t  is.  teh«.ii«r«af  thtjj  were  unable. 


262  USE  OF  INDICATIVE, 

VI.  FUTURE  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time : 

Romam  cum  venero,  scribain  ad  te,  when  I  shall  have  reached  Rome,  I  will 
write  to  you.  Cic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  illuin  fortasse  conveners,  when 
you  read  this,  I  shall  perhaps  have  already  met  him.  Cic. 

1.  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  complete  accoin 
plishment  of  the  work : 

Ego  meuin  officium  praestiterfl,  I  shall  discharge  my  duty.   Caes. 

2.  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  is  sometimes  found  in  conditional  clauses  where 
we  use  the  Present : 

Si  interpretarl  potuero,  his  verbls  utitur,  if  1  can  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  him,  Tie  uses  these  words.  Cic. 

VII.  USE  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 
RULE    XXXVII.— Indicative. 

474.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Nonne 
sxpulsus  est  patria,  was  he  not  banisJied  from  his  country  ?  Cic.  Hoc  f 6cl 
dum  limit,  I  did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted.  Cic. 

475.  The  Indicative  is  thus  used  in  treating  of  facts — 

I.  In  Principal  Clauses,1  whether  Declarative  as  in  the  first  example 
or  Interrogative  as  in  the  second. 

IL  In  Subordinate  Clauses.     Thus— 

1.  In  Relative  Clauses : 

Dixit  Id  quod  dlgnissimum  re  publica  fuit,  he  stated  that  which  was  most 
worthy  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Quicquam  bonuin  est,  quod  non  eum  qul  id 
possidet  meliOrem  facit,  is  anything  good  which  does  not  mate  him  better  who 
possesses  it  ?  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  In  Relative  Clauses,  see  497;  50O;  503;  5O7,  2,  etc. 

2.  In  Conditional  Clauses: 

Si  haec  clvitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  if  tliis  is  a  state,  I  am  a  citizen.   Cic. 
NOTE  1.— For  the  special  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  5O8. 
NOTE  2.— For  the  Sut&unctitttai  Conditional  Sentences,  see  5O9;  51O. 

8.  In  Concessive  Clauses: 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  although  they  understand, 

thty  never  epeak.   Cic. 

^ 
Vora. — For  the  Subjunctive  in  Concetsive  Clauses,  see  515. 


'   Including,  of  course,  Ml  simple  fteutences. 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE.  263 

4.  In  Causal  Clauses: 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed.  Cic. 
Quia  hon&re  dlgnl  habentur,  because  they  are  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Curt. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516;  517. 

6.  In  Temporal  Clauses: 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they  approve.  Cic.  Prius- 
quara  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  Ught.  Cic. 

NOTS.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Temporal  Clauses,  see  519;  52O;  531. 

476.  SPECIAL  USES. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where 
our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (511,  2): 

Haec  condici6  nOn  accipienda  fuit,  this  condition  should  not  have  been  ac- 
cepted. Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  particularly  the  Pluperfect, 
are  sometimes  used  for  effect,  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so : 

Vlceramus,  nisi  recepisset  Antonium,  we  should  have  (lit.,  had)  conquered, 
had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic.  See  511,  1. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  Adverbs,  made  general  by  being  doubled  or  by 
assuming  the  suffix  cumque  (187,  3),  take  the  Indicative: 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sapiens,  whoever  he  is,  he  is  wise.  Cic.  H5c  ultimum, 
utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fuit,  this,  however  it  was  commenced,  was  the 
last  battle.  Liv.  Quidquid  oritur,  qualecumque  est,  causam  habet,  whatever 
comes  into  being,  of  whatever  character  it  may  be  (lit.,  is),  it  has  a  cause.  Cic. 

4.  In  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity,  Ability,  and  the  like, 
the  Latin  often  uses  the  Indicative,  chiefly  in  the  historical  tenses,  in  a 
manner  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Non  suscipl  bellum  oportuit,  the  war  should  not  have  been  undertaken.1 
Liv.  Eum  contumclils  onerastl,  quern  colere  debebas,  you  have  loaded  with 
insults  one  whom  you  should  have  (ought  to  have)  revered.  Cic.  MultOs  pos- 
Bura  bon6s  virOs  nominare,  I  might  name  (lit.,  /  am  able  to  name)  many  good 
men.  Cic.  Hanc  mccum  poteras  requiSscere  noctem,  you  might  rest  (might 
have  rested)  with  me  this  night.  Verg. 

6.  The  Indicative  of  the  verb  turn  is  often  used  with  longum,  aequum, 
ncquius,  difficile,  justum,  melius,  par,  utilius,  etc.,  in  such  expressions  as 
longum  est,  '  it  would  be  tedious,'  rnelius  erat,  '  it  would  have  been  better ' : 

Longum  est  persequi  utilitates,  it  would  be  tedious  (is  a  long  task)  to  re- 
count the  uses.  Cic.  Melius  fuerat,  promissum  non  ease  serviitum,  it  would 
have  been  better  that  the  promise  should  not  have  been  kept.  Cic. 

1  Literally,  it  was  fitting  or  proper  tliat  the  war  should  not  b*  undertaken. 


264  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SECTION    III. 

GENERAL    VIEW    OF   THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 
AND    ITS    TENSES. 

477.  The  Latin  Subjunctive '  has  two  principal  uses— 

I.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  WILLED  or  DESIRED  : 

Animus  patriam,  LET  us  LOVE  our  country.   Cic. 

II.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  PROBABLE  or  POSSIBLE. 

Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  MAY  INQUIRE,   Cic. 

478.  TENSES  m  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  do  not  designate  the  time  of 
the  action  so  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative. 

479.  The  PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses a  embraces 
in  a  vague  and  general  manner  both  present  and  future  time : 8 

Amemus  patriam,  let  u-s  love  our  country  (now  and  ever).  Civj.  Quaerat 
quispiam,  some  one  inay  (or  will)  inquire  (at  any  time).  Cic. 

480.  The  IMPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past  and  sometimes  to  the  present  : 

Crederes  vlctos,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them.  Liv.  Utinam 
possem,  would  that  I  were  able  (now).  Cic. 

481.  The  PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal   clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past,  but  more  frequently  to  the  present  or  fu- 
ture : 

1  The  Latin  Subjunctive,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  117,  foot-note  4),  contains  the 
forms  and  the  meaning  of  two  kindred  moods,  the  Subjunctive  proper,  and  the  Optative. 
In  Latin,  the  forms  characteristic  of  these  two  moods,  used  without  any  difference  of  mean- 
ing, are  mode  to  supplement  each  other.    Thus,  In  the  Present,  the  Optative  forms 
are  found  In  the  First  Conjugation,  and  the  Subjunctive  forms  in  the  Second,  Third,  and 
Fourth.    In  their  origin  they  are  only  special  developments  of  certain  forms  of  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative,  denoting  continued  and  attempted  action.    From  this  idea  of  attempted 
action  was  readily  developed  on  the  one  hand  desire,  mil,  as  we  attempt  only  what  we 
desire,  and  on  the  other  hand  probability,  possibility,  as  we  shall  very  likely  accomplish 
what  we  are  already  attempting.     These  two  meanings,  united  in  one  word,  lie  at  the 
bisis  of  all  Subjunctive  constructions  in  Latin.    On  the  origin,  history,  and  line  of  the 
Subjunctive,  see  Delbruck,  'Conjunctiv  undOptativ';  Curtius,  '  Yerbum,'  II.,  pp.  56-95; 
Draeger,  II.,  pp.  439-743;  Koby,  II.,  pp.  202-848;  also  a  paper  by  the  author  on  'The 
Development  of  the  Latin    Subjunctive  in  Principal   Clauses,'  Transactions  Am.  Phil. 
Assoc.,  1879. 

2  For  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  clauses,  see  49O. 

*  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  its  origin  is  closely  related  both  in  form  and  in  meaning 
to  the  Future  Indicative.  Thus,  in  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conjugations,  no  future  forms 
for  the  Indicative  have  been  developed,  but  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms  supply  their 
place,  as  regain,  audium  (Subjunctive),  and  regfs,  reget,  etc.,  and  aitdifs,  audiet,  eto 
(Optative). 


SUBJUNCTIVE   OF  DESIRE.  265 

Fuerit  malus  clvis,  he  may  have  been  (admit  that  he  was)  a  bad  citizen.  Cic. 
Ne  transierfs1  Iherum,  do  not  cross  the  Ebro  (now  or  at  any  time).  Liv. 

482.  The   PLUPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses  re- 
lates to  the  past  : 

U  tiuam  potuissem,  would  that  I  had  been  able.  Cio. 

SECTION    IV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    IN    PRINCIPAL    CLAUSES. 
RULE  XXX V III.-  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  Command. 

483.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  t 

Valeant  elves,  MAY  the  citizens  BE  WELL.  Cic.  Amemvs  patriam,  LET  us 
LOVE  our  country.  Cic.  A  nobis  dilig&tur,  LET  HIM  BE  LOVED  by  its.  Cic. 
Scrfbere  ne  pigrere,  DO  not  NEGLECT  to  write.  Cic. 

1.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by  utinam,  and  some- 
times, especially  in  the  poets,  by  ut,  si,  6  si  : 

Utinam  conata  efflcere  possim,  may  I  be  able  to  accomplish  my  endeavors. 
Cic.  Ut  ilium  dl  perdant,  would  that  the  gods  would  destroy  him.  Tor. 

2.  FORCE  OF  TENSES.— The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 
be  fulfilled  ;  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  can  not  he,  fulfilled  : 

Sint  beatl,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  tJn, 
Ebro.  Liv.  Utinam  possem,  utinam  potuissem,  would  that  I  were  able,  would 
that  I  hwl  been  able.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  be  best  rendered  should,  should 
have,  ought  to  have  : 

H6c  dlceret,  fie  should  hare  said  thin.  Cic.  Mortem  oppetilsse's,  you,  should  have 
met  death.  Cic. 

8.  NEGATIVES. — With  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  the  negative  is  ni,  rarely 
non  ;  with  a  connective,  nere,  neu,  rarely  neque  : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Nfin  rccedamus,  let  us  not  recede.  Cic. 
Ames  dlcl  pater,  neu  tunas,  etc.,  ma;/  yon  love  to  be  called  father,  and  may  you 
not  permit,  etc.  Hor.  Neve  minor  neu  sit  productior,  let  it  be  neither  shorter 
nor  longer.  Hor. 

NOTE.— tffdum,  '  not  to  say,'  '  much  less,'  Is  used  with  the  Subjunctive  : 

Vlx  In  tectls  fti^us  vltatur.  nf-dnrn  In  mnrl  sit  facile  sbosse  ab  Injurla,  the  cold  in 

avoided  with  rUffli-nlty  in  our  hoiwe*.  much  lesa  in  it  eitmj  to  rncfi}>flto  be  absent  from) 

injury  on  the  sea.  Cic. 

4.  The  first  person  of  the  Subjunctive  is  often  found  in  earnest  or  solemn 

AFFIRMATIONS  : 


1  Observe  that  the  Perfect  thus  used  does  not  at  all  differ  in  time  from  th«  Present 
but  that  It  calls  attention  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 


266  POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Moriar,  si  put6,  may  I  die,  if  I  think.  Cic.  Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribo,  may  I 
not  be  safe,  if  I  write.  Cic.  Sollicitat,  ita  vlvam,  as  1  live,  it  trouble*  me.1  Cic. 

5.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  sometimes  used  in  RELATIVE  CLAUSES  : 
Quod  faustum  sit,  regem  create,  elect  a  king,  and  may  it  be  an  auspicious 

event  (may  which  be  auspicious).   Liv.     Seuectus,  ad  quam  utinara  pervenia- 
tis,  old  aye,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 

NOTE. — For  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  in  Subordinate  Clauses,  see  486,  III.,  note, 
with  foot-note. 

6.  Modo,  modo  ne,  may  accompany  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  : 

Modo  Juppiter  adsit,  only  let  Jupiter  be  present.  Verg.  Modo  ne  laudent, 
only  let  them  not  praise.  Cic. 

484.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  may  be  in  meaning — 

I.  OPTATIVE,  as  in  prayers  and  wishes  : 

Sint  beati,  may  they  be  hajtpy.  Cic.  Dl  bene  vertant,  may  the  gods  cause 
it  to  turn  out  well.  Plaut. 

II.  HORTATIVE,  as  in  exhortations  and  entreaties  : 
Consulamus  bonls,  let  us  consult  for  the  good.  Cic. 

III.  CONCESSIVE,  as  in  admissions  and  concessions: 

Fuerint  pertinaces,  grant  (or  admit)  that  they  were  obstinate.  Cic. 

IV.  IMPERATIVE,  as  in  mild  commands,  admonitions,  warnings,  etc.,  used 
chiefly  in  prohibitions : 

Ilium  jocum  ne  sis  aspernatus,  do  not  despise  that  jest.  Cic.  Scrlbere  ne 
pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  prohibitions,  the  Perfect  tense  is  generally  used  : 

Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

NOTE  2. — Except  in  prohibitions,  the  Second  Person  Singular  in  the  best  prose  is 
used  almost  exclusively  of  an  indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one: 

Isto  bond  utare,  you  should  use  (i.  e.,  one  should  use)  that  advantage.  Cic. 

V.  DELIBERATIVE,  as  in  deliberative  questions,  to  ask  what  should  be  : 

Huic  cedamus,  hujus  condiciones  audiamus,  shall  we  yield a  to  him,  shall 
we  listen  to  his  terms  ?  Cic.  Quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do?9  Verg. 

RULE  XXXIX.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  ! 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  Jiere  some  one  MAT  INQUIRE.  Cic.  Ita  laudem  f«- 
venias,  thus  you  WILL  (or  MAT)  OBTAIN  praise.  Ter.  Ita  amlcos  pares,  thus 
TOU  WILL  MAKE  friends.  Ter.  Vix  dlcere  ausim,  1  SHOULD  scarcely  DARE  fc 

1  Here  ita  vlvam  means,  may  I  so  live  (i.  e.,  maj  I  live  only  in  case  this  is  true). 
a  Or,  ought  we  to  yield,  is  it  your  unsh  tliat  we  thould  yield  f 
*  Or,  w/iat  should  I  have  done  f 


POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE.  267 

say.  Liv.  Crgderes  vlctos,  vanquished  you  would  have  thougld  them.  Liv. 
Forsitan  quaeratis^joer/tops  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dlxerit,  no 
one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Quis  dubitet  (=  n§mo  dubitat),  who  would  doubt 
(or  who  doubts  =  no  one  doubts)  ?  Cic.  Hoc  quis  ferre  possit,  who  would 
be  able  to  endure  this  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  the  Perfect  often  has  nearly  the  same  foroe  as 
the  Present,  and  the  Imperfect  is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect: 
dlceres,  'you  would  have  said';  credere*, putdres,  'you  would  have  thought':  videres, 
c*rneres,  '  you  would  have  seen ' : 

Tu  Platonem  laudaverls,  you  WOULD  PRAISE  Plato.  Cic.  Maesti,  credere*  vlctos, 
redeunt  in  castra,  sad,  vanquished  YOU  WOULD  HAV  K  THOUGHT  tftem,  they  returned  to 
the  camp.  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— On  Tense*,  see  also  478-482. 

NOTE  8. — The  Second  Person  Singular,  especially  of  the  Imperfect,  is  often  used  of  an 
indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  awy  one:  crederes,  'you  would  have  thought,'  'anyone 
would  have  thought.1 

486.  In  the  Potential  sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  Declarative  Sentences,  to  express  an  affirmation  modestly,  doubtfully, 
or  conditionally  ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  1.— Thus,  in  the  language  of  politeness  and  modesty,  the  Potential  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  in  verbs  of  wishing  and  thinking :  velim,  '  I  should  wish.'  for  told,  '  I 
wish ' ;  nfMm,  '  I  should  be  unwilling' ;  mdlim,  ' I  should  prefer' : 

Ego  censeam,  /  should  think,  or  /  am  inclined  to  think.  Liv.  Mihl  dari  velim,  1 
•hould  Wee  to  have  it  given  to  me.  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sen- 
*nces;  see  5O7, 1,  with  foot-note. 

II.  In  Interrogative  Sentences,  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  is  likely  to 
be,  what  may  be  or  would  be,  generally  implying  a  negative  answer,  as  in 
the  last  two  examples  under  the  rule. 

NOTE.— The  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  ne,  occurs  in  ques- 
tions expressive  of  impatience  or  surprise : 9 

Te  ut  ulla  res  frangat,  how  should  anything  subdue  you  t  Cic.  Egone  ut  mentiar, 
that  I  should  speak  falsely  t  Plaut 

III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  whatever  the  connective,  to  represent  the 
action  as  possible  rather  than  real  : 

Quamquara  epulls  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  be  without  its  feasts. 
Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  be  able.  Caes.  UbI  res  pos- 
ceret,  whenever  tfa  case  might  demand.  Liv. 

NOTE.— From  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  and  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  principal 
clauses  have  been  developed  the  various  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  In  subordinate  clauses.3 

1  After  forsitan  =fors  sit  an,  '  the  chance  may  be  whether,'  '  perhaps,1  the  Sub- 
junctive was  originally  in  an  indirect  question  (529),  but  it  may  be  best  treated  as  Poten- 
tial. So  also  with  forsan  &nAfortasse. 

a  Some  grammarians  assume  an  ellipsis  of  a  predicate,  as  crfdibile  est,Jlerf  potest,  etc. 

1  Thus,  the  Subjunctive  of  Desirt  is  used  in  final,  conditional,  and  concessive 
clkuses;  toe  Potential  Subjunctive  in  clauses  of  result,  and  iu  various  others  denoting 


268  IMPERATIVE. 

i 

SECTION    V. 

THE    IMPERATIVE    AND    ITS   TENSES. 
RULE   XL.     Imperative. 

487.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  COMMANDS,  EXHOBTA 

TION8,  and  ENTREATIES  I 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.  Tu  ne  cede  malis,  do  not  yield  (o 
misfortunes.  Verg.  Si  quid  in  te  peccavl,  ignosce,  if  I  have  sinned  against 
you,  pardon  me.  Cic. 

1.  The  PRESENT  IMPERATIVE  corresponds  to  the  Imperative  in  English : 
Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.    Perge,  Catillna,  go,  Catiline.  Cic. 

2.  The  FUTURE  IMPERATIVE  corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish Future  with  shall,  or  to  the  Imperative  let,  and  is  used — 

1)  In  COMMANDS  inv olving future  rather  than  present  action : 

Rem  penditote,  you  shall  consider  the  subject.  Cic.  Cras  petito,  dahitur, 
ask  to-morrow,  it  shall  be  (/ranted.  Plaut. 

2)  In  LAWS,  ORDERS,  PRECEPTS,  etc.,  especially  in  PROHIBITIONS  : 
Consoles  nemini  parento,  the  consuls  shall  be  subject  to  no  one.  Cic.     fealua 

popull  suprema  lex  estO,  the  safety  of  the  people  shall  be  the  supreme  law.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  general  distinction  between  the  Present  Imperative  and  the  Future  is 
often  disregarded,  especially  in  poetry : ' 

Ubi  aciem  videris,  turn  ordincs  dissipa,  when  you  shall  see  the  line  of  battle,  then 
scatter  the  ranks.  Liv.  Quoniam  supplicatid  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a 
thanksgiving  has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic. 

3.  An  Imperative  clause  may  be  used  instead  of  a  Conditional  clause : 
Lacesse,  jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him), 

you  will  at  once  see  Mm  frantic.  Cic. 

4.  The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive  of  De- 
sire (483),  or  by  the  Future  Indicative: 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Quod  optimum  videbitur,  facies,  you 
will  do  ivhat  shall  seem  best.  Cic. 

488.  In  prohibitions  or  negative  commands,  the  negative  ne,  rarely 
nSn,  accompanies  the  Imperative,  and  if  a  connective  is  required,  neve  or 
neu  is  generally  used,  rarely  neque  : 

Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Verg.  Homineni  mortuum 
in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  neve  uritd,  thou  shalt  not  bury  nor  burn  a  dead  body  in  tht 
city.  Cic. 

what  is  likely  to  be.  Moreover,  from  these  two  leading  uses  was  developed  th«  idea  of  a 
conceived  or  assumed  action,  which  probably  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  other  uses 
of  this  mood,  as  in  causal  and  temporal  clauses,  in  indirect  questions,  and  in  th» 
subordinate  clauses  of  the  indirect  discourse. 

1  Thus  the  Future  is  especially  common  in  certain  verbs ;  and,  indeed,  in  some  verbs, 
M  toiS.  meminl,  etc..  it  is  the  only  form  in  common  use. 


or  TENSES.  269 

489.  Instead  of  ne  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best  prose  writers 
generally  use — 

1)  Noll  and  nollte  with  the  Infinitive: 

Nollte  putare,  do  not  think  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 

2)  Fac  ne  or  cave,  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  hoc  tempore,  do  not  attend  to  anything  else  at  this 
time.  Cic.  CavS  facias,  bei  are  of  doing  it,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

3)  Ne  with  the  Perfect  Subjunctive,  rarely  with  the  Present;  see  484, 
IV.,  note  1. 

SECTION     VI. 

MOODS    IN    SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES. 

I.  TENSES  OP  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

490.  In  subordinate  clauses  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  con- 
form to  the  following  rule  : 

RULE  XLI.    Sequence  of  Tenses. 

491.  Principal   tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses; 
historical  upon  historical : 

Nltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer?  Cic.  NSmS  erit  qul  cgnseat, 
there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.1  Cic.  Quaesieras  n5nne  putarem,  you 
had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Ut  honSre  dlgnus  essem  labOravi, 
/  strove  to  be  worthy  of  honor.  Cic. 

492.  In  accordance  with  this  rule,  the  Subjunctive  dependent  upon 
a  principal  tense?  present,  future,  future  perfect,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  PRESENT,  to  denote  incomplete  action: 

Quaeritur  cur  dissentiant,  the  question  is  asked  why  they  disagree.  Cic. 
NemA  erit  quJ  censeat,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  action  denoted  by  the  Subjunctive  belong* 
aither  to  the  present  time  or  to  the  future. 

2.  In  the  PKRFKCT,  to  denote  competed  action: 

Quaeramus  quae  vitia  fuerint,  let  us  inquire  what  faults  there  were.  C'ic. 
Rogitabit  mo  ubf  fuerim,  he  will  ask  me  where  I  have  been.  Ter. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  sequence  of  tenses,  the  Perfect  is  occa#ionally  treated  as  a  jirin- 
sipal  tense : a 

Oblitus  es  quid  dixerim,  you  have  for  gotten  what  I  said.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — For  further  illustrations  of  the  sequence  offenses,  see  403,  2,  note  2. 

1  The  Present  Subjunctive  generally  denotes  present  time  in  relation  to  the  principal 
yerb.  Accordingly,  vincat  depending  upon  the  present,  nititur,  denotes  present  time. 
while  centutt  depending  upon  the  future,  erit,  denotes  future  time. 

a  For  the  treatment  of  the  Perfect  in  the  sequence  of  tenses,  see  405. 


270  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 

493.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  imperfect^ 
historical  perfect,  pluperfect,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  IMPERFECT,  to  denote  incomplete  action : 

Timebam  ne  evenlrent  ea,  /  was  fearing  that  those  things  would  take  place 
Ci.  e.,  at  some  future  time).  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you  had  in- 
quired whether  I  did  not  think  (i.  e.,  at  that  time).  Cic. 

NOTE.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  time  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  Sub- 
junctive is  either  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  o  subsequent  to  it. 

2.  In  the  PLUPERFECT,  to  denote  completed  action  : 

Themistocles,  cum  Graeciam  llberasset,  expulsus  est,  Themistocles  wo* 
banished,  though  he  had  liberated  Greece.  Cic. 

NOTB  1.— The  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  like  the  Perfect  after  a  principal 
tense,  may  represent  the  action  as  completed  in  future  time ;  see  496,  II. 
NOTE  2.— The  sequence  of  tenses  may  be  further  illustrated  as  follows  : 1 

Nescit  qnld  facias,  He  knows  not  what  you  are  doing. 

Nesciet  quid  facias,  He  will  not  know  what  you  will  do.3 

Nesciverit  quid  facias,  He  will  not  have  known  what  you  will  do. 

Nescit  quid  feceris,  He  knows  not  what  you  have  done,  or  what  you  did' 

Nesciet  quid  feceris,  He  will  not  know  what  you  will  have  done.4 

Nesciverit  quid  feceris,  He  will  not  have  known  what  you  will  have  done. 

Nesciebat  quid  faceres,  He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing.* 

Nescivit  quid  faceres,  He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing.* 

Nesciverat  quid  faceres,  He  had  not  known  what  you  were  doing. 

Nesciebat  quid  fecisses,  He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

Nescivit  quid  fecisses,  He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

Nesciverat  quid  fecisses,  He  had  not  known  what  you  had  done. 

494.  The  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  and  dus  conform  to  the  genera* 
rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  loill 
continue.  Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missurl  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain 
whither  they  would  send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

495.  PECULIARITIES  IN  SEQUENCE. — The  following  peculiarities 
in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  the  sequence  of  tenses  the  Latin  Perfect  is  generally  treated  as 
an  historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have,  and  thus  admits  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  haberes  exposul,'  nunc  dicam,  since  I  have  shown 

1  It  is  not  intended  to  give  all  the  possible  meanings  of  the  Subjunctive  clauses  here 
used,  but  simply  to  illustrate  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

2  Or,  he  will  not  know  what  you  are  doing.    Thus,  quid  fttciax  may  represent  the 
direct  question,  quid  fades,  'what  shall  you  dof '  or  quidfa&tit,  '  what  are  yon  doing?1 

3  Or,  what  you  were  doing. 

*  Or,  what  you  have  done,  or  what  you  did. 

'  Or.  what  you  would  do.    Nescivit  may  sometimes  be  rendered,  he  hav  notknoim. 

1  Erposui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perfect  Definite  with  have,  is  in  the  Latir 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.  271 

wJtat  aid*  you  have,  I  will  now  speak.  Cic.    Haec  non  ut  vos  excitarem  locu- 
tus  sum,  /  have  not  spoken  this  to  arouse  (that  I  might  arouse)  you.  Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  Perfect  as  &  principal  tense,  see  492,  2,  note  1. 

II.  The  Historical  Present  (467,  III.)  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical 
tense,  but  sometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

Persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  he  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize  the 
government.  Caes.  Ubil  Orant  ut  sibi  parcat,  the  Ubii  implore  him  to  spare 
them.  Caes. 

NOTE. — The  Historical  Present  includes  the  Present  used  of  authors  (467,  8),  the 
Present  with  dum  (467,  4),  the  Historical  Infinitive  (536, 1),  etc. : 

Chrysippus  dlsputat  Aethera  esse  ejim  quern  homines  Jovem  appellarent,  Chrysippus 
contends  that  he  whom  men  call  Jupiter  is  Aether.  Cic. 

III.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  even  when  it  refers  to  present  time,  as 
in  conditional  sentences,  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  though 
eometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

Nisi  ineptum  putarem,  jurarem  me  ea  sentire  quae  dlcerem,  if  I  did  not 
think  it  improper,  1  would  take  an  oath  that  I  believe  those  things  which  I  say. 
Cic.  Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locls  hostes  populus  Komanus  fuderit,  1 
might  state  in  what  places  the  Roman  people  routed  the  enemy.  Sail. 

IV.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  is  generally  treated  as  .an  historical  tense,  bui 
the  Present  and  the  Future  Infinitive,  the  Present  and  the  Future  Participle, 
as  also  Gerunds  and  Supines,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb  on  which  thej 
depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (531,  550) : 

Satis  videor  docuisse,  hominis  niitnra  quanto  antelret  animantes,  I  think  I 
have  sufficiently  shown  ho'W  much  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  that  of  tlie  other 
animals  (lit.,  surpassed  animals).  Cic.  SperO  fore '  ut  contingat,  I  hope  it  will 
happen.  Cic.  N6n  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  he  had  not  hoped  that 
they  would  revolt  to  him.  Liv.  Mlserunt  DelphSs  consulturn  quidnam  face- 
rent,  they  sent  to  Delphi  to  ask  what  they  should  do.  Nep. 

V.  Clauses  containing  a  general  truth  usually  conform  to  the  law  for 
the  sequence  of"  tenses,  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom  : 

Quanta  conscientiae  vis  esset,  ostendit,  he  showed  how  great  is  the  power  of 
conscience.  Cic. 

VI.  Clauses  denoting  consequence  or  result  generally  express  absolute 
time,  and  are  thus  independent  of  the  law  of  sequence.8     They  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect  after  historical  tenses  : 

Epamlnondas  fide  sic  usus  eat,  ut  possit  judicart,11  Epaminondas  used  such 

treated  as  the  Historical  Perfect.    The  thought  is  as  follows :  Since  in  the  preceding 
topics  I  net  forth  the  aids  which  you  have,  I  will  now  speak,  etc. 

I  Literally,  I  hope  it  will  be  that  it  may  happen.     Here/ore  shares  the  tense  of 
*ptr6,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present,  contingat;  but  below  it  shares  the 
tense  of  spfrrirerat,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Imperfect,  dffic-tretit. 

II  This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  remit  of  a  patt  action  may  itself  be 


2TZ  8SQUSNOS  OF  TEN8JS8. 

fidelity  thai  it  may  be  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excellebat  Aristldes  abstiuentia, 
ut  Justus  sit  appellatus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self-control^  Mutt  he  has  beeri 
called  the  Just.  Nep. 

VII.  For  the  sequence  of  tenses  in  the  indirect  discourse,  see  525. 

496.  FUTURE  TIME  IN  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. — When  the  Future  is  used  in 
the  principal  clause,  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect  tenses,  wanting  in  the 
Latin  Subjunctive,  are  supplied  in  the  subordinate  clauses  as  follows : 

I.  The  Future  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the  PRESENT, 
and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  IMPERFECT: 

Omnia  sic  agentur  ut  bellum  sedetur,1  all  things  shall  be  so  managed  that 
the  war  will  be  brought  to  a  close.  Oic.  Loquebantur,  etiam  cum  vellct '  Caesar, 
sese  non  esse  pugnaturos,  they  were  saying  that  the//  would  not  fight  even  when 
Caesar  should  wish  it.  Caes. 

II.  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the 
PERFECT,  and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  PLUPERFECT  : 

Respondet  si  id  sit  factum,  86  nociturum  neminl,  he  replies  that  if  this 
should  be  done  (shall  have  been  done)  he  will  harm  no  one.  Caes.  Apparebat 
regnaturum,  qui  vlcisset,  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  king  who  should  con- 
quer. Liv. 

NOTE  1. — The  Future  and  the  Future  Perfect  tenses  are  often  supplied  in  the  same 
way,  even  when  the  Future  does  not  occur  in  the  principal  clause,  provided  the  idea  of 
future  time  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  context : 

Vereor  ne  laborem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  ithatt  increase  the  labor.  Cic.  Quid  dies 
ferat  incertum  est,  what  a  day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quid  hostes  con- 
silii  caperent,  exspectabant,  they  waited  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  would  adopt. 
Caes.  DelituI,  dum  vela  dedissent,  I  hid  myself  until  they  should  have  set  sail.  Verg. 

NOTE  2. — When  the  idea  of  future  time  must  be  especially  emphasized  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  are  used  : a 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  will  continue. 
Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missfiri  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain  whither  they  would 
*end  the  fleet.  Liv. 

NOTE  8. — The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  supplied  in  the  Passive  byfuturus  tint 
&nafut&rus  essem  with  the  Perfect  Participle :  a 

Non  dubito  quln  confecta  jam  res  futura  sit,  /  do  not  doubt  that  the  thing  will  have 
been  already  accomplished.  Cic. 


prevent,  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a  principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs  to 
the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used :  possit  judicurl,  '  may  be  judged  now ' ;  when  it 
is  represented  as  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used  :  sit  appelMtw,  'has  been  called1  (i.  e., 
even  to  the  present  day);  but  when  it  is  represented  as  simultaneous  with  the  action 
on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  (491). 

1  Sedetur,  referring  to  the  same  time  as  agentur,  and  vellet,  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  esse  pfignatfirts,  both  denote  future  time. 

a  Other  traditional  periphrastic  forms,  rarely  used  in  either  voice,  are— for  the  Fr- 
t\3KR,futurum  «it  ut  with  the  Present  Subjunctive,  and  futfirum  esstt  ut  with  the  Im- 
perfect; and  for  the  FPTTTKK  PBEFIOT,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Perfect,  and  futiirum 
eniet  ut  with  the  Pluperfect. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE.  272 

11.  SUBJUNCTIVE  EN  CLAUSES  OF  PUBPOSE. 
RULE  XLII.    Purpose. 

497.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  PURPOSE  : l 

i.  With  the  relative  qul,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 

MissI  sunt  qul  (=ut  il)  consukrent  Apollinem,  they  were  sent  TO  CONSULT 
Apollo  (who  should,  or  that  they  should).  Nep.  MissI  sunt  delect!  qul 
Thermopylas  occupdrent,  picked  men  were  sent  TO  TAKE  POSSESSION  OF  Ther- 
mopylae. Nep.  Domum,  ubi  habitaret,  legit,  he  selected  a  house  where  he 
might  dwell  (that  he  might  dwell  in  it).  Cic.  Locum  petit,  unde  (=  ut 
inde)  hostem  invadat,  he  seeks  a  position  from  which  he  may  (that  from  it 
he  may)  attack  the  enemy.  Liv. 

TT.  With  ut,  ne,  qu5.  an5minus,  qu5  minus : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  HE  MAY  CONQUER.  Cic.  Punit  nepeccetur, 
he  punishes  that  crime  MAY  not  BE  COMMITTED.  Sen.  Legum  idcirco  servl 
sumus,  ut  llbert  esse  possimus,  we  are  servants  of  the  law  for  this  reason, 
that  we  may  be  free.  Cic.  Medico  dare  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  phy- 
sician, that  (by  this  means)  he  may  be  more  attentive.  Cic.  Non  recusavit 
qu5minus  poenam  sublret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  punishment.  Nep. 

1.  Ut  orutl  and  ne  are  the  usual  conjunctions  in  clauses  denoting  purpose. 
A  correlative,  idea,  idcirco,  ed,  etc.,  sometimes  precedes,  us  in  the  third  ex- 
ample under  II. 

NOTE.— With  a  connective  ne  becomes  ngce,  neu,  rarely  neque;  see  483,  8 : 
L€gem  tulit  n6  quis  accusaretur  nCve  iniiltaretur,  he  proposed  a  law  that  no  one 
uliould  be  accunetl  or  punished.  Nep. 

2.  Quo,  '  by  which,'  '  that,'  is  sometimes  used  in  clauses  denoting  purpose, 
especially  with  comparatives,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  II.     Quominus, 
'by  which  the  less,'  '  that  thus  the  less,'  'that  not,'  is  simply  <juo  with  the 
comparative  minus.    It  is  sometimes  used  after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing, 
and  the  like,  as  in  the  last  example  under  II. 

NOTE. — Quo  sitiun  also  occurs  in  the  sense  of  qudminus;  see  Olc.  Inv.,  II. ,45. 

498.  CLAUSES  OP  PURPOSE  readily  pass  into   Object   Clause** 


1  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  express- 
ing the  dexire  or  command  implied  in  the  action  of  the  principal  verb  :  Te  rogo  ut  eum 
juves,  I  ask  you  to  aid  him  (I  ask  you,  so  aid  him).    Here  the  second  clause,  originally 
independent,  contains  the  dexire,  tcisfi,  involved  in  rogo.    Vereor  n<3  laborem  augeam, 
I. fear  that  I thalUnorease  the  labor  (I  fear,  let  me  not  increase  the  labor).    Praestfi 
erit  pontifex,  qul  comitia  luibeat.  the  pontiff  will  be  present  to  hold  the  comitia  (the 
pontiff  will  be  present,  let  him  hold  the  comitia).   Liv.    See  Delbruck,  '  Conjunctiv  und 
Optativ,'  pp.  59-62. 

2  An  Object  Clause  is  ono  which  has  become  virtually  the  objtct  of  a  verb.     Thus,  In 
'opto  ut  id  uuiiiiifix.'  the  clause  ut  id  audidtit  ha»  become  the  object  of  opto,  '  I  dosiru ' 


274      -  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 

but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  is 
used — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  DESIRE  and  its  EXPRESSION  ;  hence  decision, 
decree,  etc. :  * 

OptO  ut  id  audiatis,  I  desire  (pray)  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  Ut  mihi 
aedes  aliquas  conducas  volo,  I  wish  that  you  would  hire  a  house  for  me.  Plaut. 
Sena tus  censuerat,  uti  AeduOs  defenderet,  the  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should 
defend  the  Aedui.  Caes.  Servis  imperat  ut  f  Iliam  defendant,  he  commands 
his  servants  to  defend  his  daughter.  Cic.  Te  hortor  ut  legas,  I  exhort  you  to 
read.  Cic.  Te  rogO  ut  eum  juves,  /  ask  you  to  aid  him.  Cic.  A  rege  peti- 
v6runt  ne  inimicissimum  suura  secnm  haberet,  they  asked  from  the  king  that 
he  would  not  keep  his  worst  enemy  with  him.  Nep. 

NOTE.— Verbs  of  DETERMINING,  DECIDING — status,  constituS,  decerns,  etc. — generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  when  a  new  subject  ia  introduced,  otherwise  the  Infinitive  (533, 

I.,D: 

Constituerat,  ut  tribunns  quereretur,  he  had  arranged  that  the  tribune  should  enter 
the  complaint.  Sail.  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed  that 
the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.  Manure  decrevit,  he  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

II.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  EFFORT  (striving  for  a  pur- 
pose, attaining  a  purpose)  or  IMPULSE  (urging  to  effort) : 2 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Curavl  ut  bene  vlverera, 
I  took  care  to  lead  a  good  life.  Sen.  Effecit  ut  imperator  mitteretur,  he  caused 
a  commander  to  be  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.  Movemur  ut  bonl 
simus,  we  are  influenced  to  be  good.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Some  verbs  of  ENDEAVORING,  STRIVING,  as  timor,  contends,  nitor,  studeo, 
and  tents,  generally  take  the  Infinitive  when  no  new  subject  is  introduced ;  see  533 : 

Locum  oppugnare  contendit,  he  proceeds  to  storm  tht>  city.  Caes.  Tentabo  do  h5c 
dicere,  I  will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint. 

NOTE  2.—  Ut  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  -with  f  ado  or  ago,  rarely  with  est, 
»  circumlocution  for  the  Indicative :  facio  ut  dlcam  =  dicO ;  facto  ut  scrlbam  —  scribe : 

In  vi  tus  facio  ut  recorder,  I  unwillingly  recall.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  FEAR,  ANXIETY,  DANGER  :  s 
TimeO,  ut  labOres  sustineas,  I  fear  that  you  will  not  endure  the  laborn* 

Cic.  Tim  S  bam  ne  e  venire  nt  ea,  I  feared  that  those  things  would  happen.  Cic. 
Vereor  ne  labOrem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor*  Cic.  Pencu- 
lum  est  ne  ille  te  verbis  obruat,  there  is  danger  that  he  will  overwhelm  you 
with  -words.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — By  a  difference  of  idiom,  ut  must  here  be  rendered  by  that  not,  and  ne,  by 
that  or  lest.  The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a  wish  or  purpose.* 

1  As  opto,  postulo;  censeo,  decemo,  status,  constituo,  etc.;  volo,  mdlo;  admonta, 
monel),  hortor  ;  oro,  rogo  ;  imperO,  praecipio,  etc. 

8  As  enitor,  contends,  studeo;  euro,  id  ago,  operam  do,  etc.;  facio,  efficio,  *wt- 
pttro,  consequor,  etc. ;  cogo,  impello,  moves,  «tc. 

8  As  metuO,  timed,  vereor;  periculum  est,  cura  eet,  etc. 

4  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  manifest  if  we  make  the  subordinate  clause  iod» 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE:  275 

NOTB  2.— After  verbs  of  nsABiwa,  ne  non  is  sometimes  used  for  ut— regularly  so  after 
negative  clauses; 

Vereor  ne  non  possit,  I  fear  that  he  witt  not  be  able.  Cic. 

NOT*  8. — Verbs  of  FEARING  admit  the  Infinitive  In  the  same  sense  as  in  English : 

V«reor  laudare,  I  fear  (hesitate)  to  praise. '  CHc. 

499.  PECULIARITIES. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  : 

1.  Ut  ne,  rarely  ut  non,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne : 

Praedlxit,  ut  ne  legates  dlmitterent,  he  charged  them,  not  to  (that  they 
should  not)  release  the  delegates.  Nep.  Ut  plura  nOn  dlcam,  not  to  say  more 
(i.  e.,  that  I  may  not).  Cic. 

2.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  after  void,  note,  mate,  facio,  and 
after  verbs  of  DIRECTING,  URGING,  etc.     Ne  is  often  omitted  after  cave  : 

Tu  velim  sis,  I  desire  that  you  may  be.  Cic.  Fac  habeas,  see  (make)  that 
you  have.  Cic.  Senatus  decrevit  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed 
that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.  CavS  facias,  beware  of  doing  it,  or  see 
that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

NOTB. — Clauses  with  ut  or  ne  are  sometimes  inserted  parenthetically  In  sentences  : 
Amicos,  optlmam  vitae,  ut  ita  dlcam,5  suppeIlectllem,/rien<Z«,  the  best  treasure  (furni- 
ture), so  to  speak,  of  life.  Cic. 

3.  Clauses  of  Purpose  sometimes  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses,  which, 
like  indeclinable  nouns,  are  used  in  a  variety  of  constructions : 

Per  eum  stetit  quOminus  dlmicaretur,8  it  was  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him)  that  the  battle  was  not  fought.  Caes.  Vol5  ut  mihf  respondeau,8 1  wish 
that  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  Fecit  pacem  his  condicionibus,  ne  qul  ad- 
ficerentur  exsiliO,8  he  made  peace  on  these  terms,  that  none  should  be  punished 
with  exile.  Nep. 

Nora  1.— For  the  Different  Form*  of  Substantive  Clauses,  see  54O. 

Nor«  2.— Clauses  with  quominus  sometimes  lose  the  original  idea  of  Purpose  and 
denote  Result :  * 

Non  deterret  saplentcm  more  quominus  rCI  publicae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter 
a  wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  republic.  Clc. 


pendent,  as  It  was  originally  :  I  fear,  so  may  you  endure  the  labors,  an  affirmative  wish; 
I  fear,  may  I  not  increase  the  labor,  a  negative  wish;  hence  nf. 

1  Compare  vereor  lauddre,  '  I  fear  TO  I-RAISE,'  with  rereor  ne  laudem, '  I  fear  THAT 

I  SHALL  PRAISE.' 

3  The  Subjunctive  in  this  and  similar  clauses  may  be  explained  either  as  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Purpose  dependent  upon  a  verb  understood,  or  as  a  Subjunctive  of  De*ire;  see 
483. 

'  In  the  first  example,  the  clause  quominus  dlmicaretur  has  become  apparently  the 
subject  of  utetit ;  In  the  second,  ut  mihl  respondents,  the  object  of  void ;  and  in  the  third. 
ni  qul  adficerentur  e&silio,  an  appositlv*  to  condicionibus. 

*  Such  a  transition  from  Purpose,  denoting  an  Intended  Result,  to  a  Simple  Resvtt 
ie  easy  and  natural. 


276  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 

HI.  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  CLAUSES  OP  RESULT. 
RULE  XLJII.    Result. 

500.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  RESULT'— 

I.  With  the  relative  qul,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  cfir 
etc.  : 

Non  is  sum  qul  (=  ut  ego)  his  utar,  I  am,  not  such  a  one  as  TO  USE  these 
things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  adfecti6  talis  anitni,  quae  (=  ut  ea)  noceat  nemini, 
innocence  is  such  a  state  of  mind  as  INJURES  no  one,  or  as  TO  INJURE  no  one.  Cic. 
Neque  quisquam  fuit  uhl  nostrum  jus  obtineremus,  nor  was  there  any  one 
with  whom  (where)  we  could  obtain  our  right.  Cic.  Est  vero  cur  quis  Juno- 
nem  laedere  nOlit,  there  is  indeed  a  reason  why  (so  that)  one  would  be  unwill- 
ing to  offend  Juno.  Ovid. 

II.  With  ut,  ut  non,  quln  : 

Ita  vlrit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  HE  WAS  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Ita  laudO,  ut  noupertimescam,  I  so  praise  as  not 
TO  FEAR.  Cic.  Ego  in  publicis  causls  ita  sum  versatus  ut  defenderim  multos, 
I  have  been  so  occupied  in  public  suits  that  I  have  defended  many.  Cic.  Nihil 
est  tarn  difficile  quln  (ut  non)  investlgar!  possit,  nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.  Ter. 

NOTE  1. — Qul  is  often  preceded  by  is,  tdlis,  tantus,  or  some  similar  word;  and  ut, 
by  ita,  sic,  tarn,  adeo,  tantopere,  or  some  similar  particle ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2. — In  Plautus  and  Terence  ut  sometimes  accompanies  qul : 

Ita  at  qui  neget,  so  that  he  refuses.  Ter. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  Subjunctive  denoting  a  result  after  quominus,  see  490,  8,  note  2. 

501.  CLAUSES  OP  RESULT  readily  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses, 
but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.   Thus  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  SUBJECT  CLAUSES.     Thus — 

1.  With  impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  happens,  remains,  follows,  is  law- 
ful, is  allowed,  is  distant,  is,  etc. :  * 

Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur;  it  happens  that  every  one  is  delighted.  Cic. 
Sequitur  ut  falsum  sit,  it  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic.  Restat  ut  doceam,  it 
remains  that  I  should  show.  Cic.  Ex  quo  efficitur  ut  voluptas  non  sit  sum- 
mum  bonum,  from  which  it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  highest  good.  Cic. 

2.  With  predicate  nouns  and  adjectives : 

Mos  est  ut  nOlint,  it  is  their  custom  not  to  be  willing  (that  they  are  un- 
willing). Cic.  Proximum  est,  ut  doceam,  the  next  point  is,  that  1  show.  Cic. 
Non  est  dubium  quln  beneficium  sit,  that  it  is  a  benefit,  is  not  doubtful.  Sen. 

1  The  Subjunctive  of  Result  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Potential  Subjunctive  :  Non  is 
turn  qul  his  utar,  '  I  am  not  one  who  would  use  (or  is  likely  to  uxe)  these  things.1 
Hence  this  Subjunctive  takes  the  negative  non  (ut  non)  like  the  Potential  Subjunctive, 
while  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  takes  the  negative  ne  like  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire. 

8  As  accidit,  contingit,  evenit,Jit,  restat,  sequitur,  licet,  abest,  «#t,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT.  277 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  with  nt,  with  or  without  «•<?,  in  questions  expressive  ol 
impatience  or  surprise,  see  486,  II.,  note. 

II.  In  OBJECT  CLAUSES.     Thus — 

1.  In  clauses  introduced  by  ut  after  facid,  efficid,  of  the  action  of  irra- 
tional forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  orania  fioreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom  (i.  e.,  pro- 
duces that  result).  Cic.  Splendor  vester  facit  ut  peccare  sine  pertculo  non 
poesltis,  your  conspicuous  position  causes  this  result,  that  you  can  not  err  with- 
out peril.  Cic.  See  498,  II. 

2.  In  clauses  introduced  by  quin  after  verbs  of  Doubting  : 

N&n  dubitabis  quin  sint  beatl,  you  will  not  doubt  that  they  are  happy.  Cic. 

III.  In  CLADSES  IN  APPOSITION  with  nouns  or  pronouns : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet,  virtue  has  this  advantage,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  hoc  vitium,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  there  is  this  fault,  that  envy 
is  the  companion  of  glory.  Nep. 

NOTB. — For  the  different  forms  of  substantive  clauses,  see  54O. 

502.  PECULIARITIES. — Expressions  of  Result  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 

1.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted — regularly  with  oportet,  generally  with  opw 
est  and  necesse  est  : 

Tc  oportet  virtus  trahat,  it  is  necessary  that  virtue  should  attract  you.  Cic. 
Causam  habeat  necesse  est,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a  cause.  Cic. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  quam — with  or  without  ut : 

Llberalius  quam  ut  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 
be  able).  Nep.  ImpOnebat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent,  he  imposed  mort 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  After  tantum  abest  ut,  denoting  result,  a  second  ut  of  result  aome- 
times  occurs : 

Philosophia,  tantum  abest  ut  \audetur,  ut  etiam  vituperetur,  so  far  is  it 
from  the  truth  (so  much  is  wanting)  that  philosophy  is  praised,  that  it  it  even 
censured.  Cic. 

503.  In  RELATIVE  CLAUSES,  the  Subjunctive  of  RESULT 
shows  the  following  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS  : 

I.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses  to  characterize  an 
Indefinite  or  General  Antecedent : l 

Quid  est  quod  t6  delectare  possit,  what  in  there  which  can  delight  you  f 
Cic.  Nunc  dlcis  aliquid  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  now  you  state  something  whick 
belongs  to  the  sukjed.  Cic.  Sunt  qul  putent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
N6m6  est  qui  non  cupiat,  there  is  no  one  who  does  not  desire.  Cic. 

1  Here  tarn,  Mlis,  or  some  such  word,  is  often  understood. 


278  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 

NOTE  1. — Restrictive  clauses  with  quod,  as  quod  sciam,  'as  far  as  I  know,1  quod 
m-eminerim, '  as  far  as  I  remember,'  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Non  ego  t6,  quod  sciam,  unquam  ante  hunc  diem  vldi,  AS  FAB  AS  I  KNOW,  /  have 
never  seen  you  before  this  day.  Plaut 

NOTE  2. — Quod,  or  a  relative  particle,  ubl^  unde,  quo,  cftr,  etc.,  with  the  Subjunctive, 
is  used  after  est,  there  is  reason ' ;  mm  est,  nihtt  est,  '  there  is  no  reason ' ;  quid  est,  '  what 
reason  is  there  f '  non  habeo,  nihil  habeo,  '  I  have  no  reason ' : 

Est  quod  gaudeas,  there  is  reason  why  you  should  rejoice,  or  so  that  you  may. 
Plaut.  Non  est  quod  credas,  there  is  no  reason  why  you,  should  believe.  Sen.  Nihil 
habeo,  quod  incusem  senectutem,  /  have  no  reason  why  I  should  accuse  old  age.  Cic. 
Quid  est  cur  virtus  ipsa  non  efllciat  beatos,  what  reason  is  there  why  virtue  itself 
thould  not  make  men  happy  f  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— The  Indicative  is  freely  used  in  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents : 

1)  In  poetry l  and  late  prose : 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  whom  it  delights.  Hor. 

2)  Even  in  the  best  prose,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made  prominent: 

Snnt  qui  non  audent  dicere,  there  are  some  who  do  not  dare  to  speak.  Cic.  Multa 
sunt,  qnae  dlci  possunt,  the/re  an  many  things  which  may  be  said.  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses — 

1.  After  unus,  solus,  and  the  like  : 

Sapientia  est  una,  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  wisdom  is  the  on ly  thing  which 
dispels  sadness  (which  would  dispel).  Cic.  Soli  centum  erant  qui  creari  pos- 
sent,  there  were  only  one  hundred  who  could  be  appointed  (such  that  they  could 
be).  Liv. 

2.  After  ihgnus,  indigmis,  idoneus,  and  aptus  : 

Fabulae  dignae  sunt,  quae  legantur,  the  fables  are  worthy  to  be  read  (that 
they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Eufum  Caesar  idoneum  judicaverat  quern  mit- 
teret,  Caesar  had  judged  Rufw  a  suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
send).  Caes. 

3.  After  comparatives  with  quam  : 

Damna  majOra  sunt  quam  quae  (=ut  ea)  aestimart  possint,  the  losses  are 
too  great  to  be  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).  Liv. 

504.  Quln,*  'who  not,'  'that  not,'  etc.,  is  often  used 
to  introduce  a  result  after  negatives  and  interrogatives 
implying  a  negative.'  Thus — 

1  Especially  in  early  poetry,  as  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

a  Quin  is  a  compound  of  the  relative  qui  and  ne,  and  appears  to  be  used  both  as  an 
indeclinable  relative  pronoun,  who  not,  and  as  a  relative  particle,  by  tchich  not,  how  not, 
etc.  Some  clauses  with  quin  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  as  indirect  questiont 
(529, 1.).  Quin,  meaning  why  not  T  often  used  in  independent  clauses,  is  a  compound 
of  the  interrogative  quis  or  qui,  and  ne :  Quin  tfc  hdcfacis, '  why  do  you  not  do  it  ? '  Liv. 

8  Aa  nemo,  nullus,  nihil,  quis  f  non  dubito,  non  dubium  ett ;  non  multum  abett, 
paulum  abest,  nihil  abest,  quid  abestt  non,  vise,  atgre  abttineo;  mihl  non  Umptro; 
non  retineor;  non,  nihil  praetwmitto  ;  facere  non  possum,  fieri  non  pottst;  nun- 
fuam  with  a  large  class  of  verbi. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT.  279 

1.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  qul  non,  quae  non,  etc.,  as 
after  nemo,  nullus,  nihil,  quis  f 

Adest  nemo,  quln  videat,  there  is  .no  one  present  who  does  not  see.  Cic. 
Nernd  est  quln  audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  heard.  Cic.  Quis  est 
quin  cernat,  who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  ?  Cic.  N ulla  fuit  clvitas  quln 
mitteret,  there  was  no  state  which  did  not  send.  Caes.  Nulla  plctura  fuit 
quln  (=quam  non)  InspSxerit,  there  was  no  painting  which  he  did  not  inspect. 
Cic.  NOllum  intermlsl  diem,  quln  (=quo  non  or  ut  ed  non)  aliquid  darem, 
I  allowed  no  day  to  pass  without  giving  something  (on  which  I  would  not  giv« 
something).  Cic. 

NOTE. — Quin  can  often  be  best  rendered  by  but  or  by  ^cithout  or  from  with  a  parti- 
cipial noun  in  -ING  :  Bee  the  last  example  under  1 ;  also  the  last  under  2. 

2.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ut  non  : 

N£m6  est  tarn  fortis  quin  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so  brave  as  not  to  be  dis- 
turbed.  Caes.    Nihil  est  tarn  difficile  quin  investlgarl  possit,  nothing  is  so 
difficult  that  it  may  not  be  investigated.   Ter.     Retinert  n&n  poterant  quln 
tela  cAicerent,1  they  could  not  be  restrained  from  hurling  their  weapons.  Caes. 
NOTI. — /«  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quin  : 
Nihil  est  quin  id  intereat,  there  is  nothing  which  does  not  parish.  Cic. 

3.  Quln  is  used  in  the  sense  of  ut  non  or  of  ut  in  subject  and 
object  clauses  (501)  : 

1)  Withfacere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest,  etc.,  in  the  sense  of  ut  non: 
Facere  n6n  possum  quln  lltteras  mittam,  /  can  not  but  send  a  letter.  Cic. 

Effici  non  potest  quin  eos  oderini,  it  can  not  be  (be  effected)  that  I  should  not 
hate  them.   Cic. 

2)  With  negative  expressions  implying  doubt  and  uncertainty,  in  the 
sense  of  ut  : 

Agamemnon  non  dubitat  quln  Troja  sit  peritura,  Agamemnon  does  not 
doubt  that  Troy  will  fall  (perish).  Cic.  N&n  dubitari  debet  quln  fuerint 
poctae,  it  ought  not  to  be  doubted  that  there  were  poets.  Cic.  Quis  Ign&rat 
quln  trie  genera  sint,  who  is  ignorant  that  there  art  three  races  ?  Cic. 

4.  Quln  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  quominus:* 

Quin  loquar  haec,  nunquam  m6  potes  deterrere,  you  can  never  deter  me 
from  saying  this.  Plaut.  Non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  rci  publi-' 
cae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter  a  wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  repub- 
lic. Cic.  Non  reciisuvit,  quominus  poenam  subiret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  sub- 
mit to  punishment.  Nep.  Neque  recusaro  quin  armls  contendant,  and  that 
they  do  not  refuse  to  contend  in  arms.  Caes. 

NOTE. — For  non  quin  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  510,  3. 

1  Pronounced  as  if  written  ciijicerent;  see  36,  4,  with  foot-note  1. 

1  As  after  verbs  of  himle,rin</,  reftuimj,  and  the  like.  Observe  that  in  the  examplei 
deterreo  and  recusO  are  used  both  with  qulti  and  with  ijwnninui .  They  also  admit  tht 
Subjunctive  with  ne  or  the  Infinitive;  tee  505,  IL 


280  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

505.  CONSTRUCTION   OF   SPECIAL  VEHBS. — Some  verbs  admit 
two  or  more  different  constructions.     Thus — 

I.  Dubito  admits — 

1.  Quln,  WITH  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE,  if  it  stands  in  a  negative  sentence; 
see  504,  3,  2). 

2.  An  INDIRECT  QUESTION  (529,  I.): 

Non  dubito  quid  putes,  /  do  not  doubt  what  you  think.  Cic.  Dubitfi  an 
ponam,  I  doubt  whether  I  should  not  place.1  Nep. 

3.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE  : 

Quis  dubitat  patere  Europam,  ivho  doubts  that  Europe  is  exposed?  Curt. 

4.  The  simple  INFINITIVE,  when  it  means  to  hesitate-- 

Non  dubitem  dicere,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  say.  Cic.  Dubitamus  virtiitem 
extendere  factls,  do  we  hesitate  to  extend  our  glory  (valor)  by  our  deeds?  Verg. 

IL  Verbs  of  hindering,  opposing,  refusing,  and  the  like,  admit — 

1.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  WITH  ne,  quin,  or  quominus  : J 

Impedior  ne  plura  dlcam,  1  am  prevented  from  saying  (that  I  may  not  way) 
more.  Cic.  Sententiam  ne  dlceret  recusavit,  he  refused  to  give  an  opinion. 
Cic.  Neque  recusare  quln  armls  contendant,  and  that  they  do  not  refuse  to 
contend  in  arms.  Caes.  Intercludor  dolore  quominus  plura  scribam,  /  am 
prevented  by  sorrow  from  writing  more.  Cic. 

2.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE,  or  the  simple  INFINITIVE  : 
Num  ignobilitas  sapientem  beatum  ease  prohibebit,  will  obscurity  prevent 

a  wise  man  from  being  happy  ?  Cic.     Quae  facere  recusem,  which  1  should 
refuse  to  do.   Hor. 

IV.  MOODS  IN  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

506.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
expressed  or  understood — the  Condition  and  the  Conclusion : 

Si  negem,  mentiar,  if  I  should  deny  it,  I  should  speak  falsely.3  Cic. 

RULE  XLJV.    Conditional  Sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin. 

507.  Conditional  sentences  witli  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take — 
I.  The  INDICATIVE  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  sup- 
posed case : 

1  That  is,  /  am  inclined  to  think  that  I  should  place.    Observe  that  dubito  an 
means  'I  doubt  whether  not'='I  am  inclined  to  think.'  and  dubito  num,  'I  doubt 
whether1 :  Dubito  num  debeam,  '  I  doubt  whether  I  ought.'  Plin. 

2  For  the  use  of  qmn,  see  5O4.    Ne  and  quominus  may  follow  either 
or  negatives. 

*  Here  «i  nege-in  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar,  the  conclusion. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  281 

Si  splritum  ducit,  vivit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive.  Cic.  Si  tot  exempla 
firtutis  non  movent,  nihil  unquam  movebit,  if  so  many  examples  of  valor 
do  not  move  (you),  nothing  will  ever  move  (you).  Liv. 

II.  The   PRESENT   or   PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE   in   both 
clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  possible  : 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me,  if  I 
thould  wish  to  defend  the  cause.  Cic.  Iraprobe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you 
would  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give  warning.  Cic. 

III.  The   IMPERFECT  or  PLUPERFECT   SUBJUNCTIVE  in 
both  clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to 
fact: 

Pluribus  verbls  ad  te  scrlberem,  si  re's  verba  dgslderaret,  I  should  write 
to  you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words.  Cic.  Si 
voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep. 

1.  Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  sometimes  have  the  force  of  a 
conditional  sentence : 

Negat  quis,  negO,  does  any  one  deny,  I  deny.  Ter.  Roges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam,  ask  me,  1  shall  make  no  reply.  Cic.  Tu  magnain  partem,  sineret 
dolor,  haberes,  you  would  have  had  a  large  share,  had  grief  permitted.1  Verg. 
Lac8sse ;  jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him),  you 
will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic.a 

2.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  the  relative  qul,  quae,  etc. 
=  si  is,  si  quis,  si  qul,  etc. : 

Qul  secum  loqul  poterit,  sermSnem  alterlus  non  requlret,  if  any  one  (lit., 
he  who)  shall  be  able  to  converse  with  himself,  he  will  not  need  the  conversation 

i  Bee  51O,  note  2. 

9  From  these  examples  It  is  manifest  that  a  conditional  particle  is  not  an  essential  part 
of  a  conditional  sentence.  Originally  the  two  clauses,  the  condition  and  the  conclusion, 
were  independent,  and  the  mood  in  each  was  determined  by  the  ordinary  principles 
which  regulate  the  use  of  moods  in  principal  clauses;  see  483;  485.  Hence  the  Indica- 
tive was  used  in  treating  of  facts,  and  the  Subjunctive  or  Imperative  in  all  other  cases. 
SI,  probably  the  Locative  case  of  a  pronoun,  meaning  (1 )  itt  that  time  or  in  that  manner, 
»nd  (2)  at  any  time  or  in  any  manner,  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  mood,  but 
merely  denotes  that  the  conclusion  is  connected  with  the  condition.  Thus :  negat,  nego, 
'he  denies  (i.  e..  assume  that  he  denies),  I  deny';  n~>  negat,  negf),'he  denies  at  some 
time,  then  I  deny  ' ;  dies  deflciat,  si  velim,  etc., '  let  me  wish  (Subjunctive  of  Desire)  at 
any  time,  etc.,  then  the  day  would  fail  me.'  The  Subjunctive  in  conditions  is  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire  with  nearly  the  force  of  the  Imperative,  which  may  indeed  be  used  for  it 
when  si  is  omitted,  as  /aclsse,  'provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him).'  In  conclusions 
the  Subjunctive  is  generally  potential,  as  (lien  dejiciat,  'the  day  would  fail,'  but  some- 
times it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  for  which  the  Imperative  may  be  substituted ;  as, 
perearn,  *i  poterunt, '  may  I  perish  if  they  shall  be  able' ;  si  pec&ivl,  Ignosce, '  If  I  hava 
erred,  pardon  me.'  See  Delbr'lck,  '  Conjunctlv  und  Optativ,'  pp.  70-74;  1T1-NW. 


282  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

tf  another.  Cic.  Errat  longfi,  qul  crCdat,  etc. ,  he  greatly  errs  who 
etc.  (i.  e.,  if  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs).  Ter.  Haec  qul  videat, 
nOnne  cogatur  confiteri,  etc.,  if  any  one  should  see  these  things,  would  he  not 
be  compelled  to  admit,  etc.  I  Cic. 

3.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  cum: 

Ea  cum  dtxissent,  quid  responderes,  \f  (when)  they  had  said  that,  what 
should  you  reply  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  condition  is  sometimes  ironical,  especially  with  niisi  vero,  ni»i  forte, 
with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi,  quasi  verb,  with  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  •. 

Nisi  forte  insanit,  unless  perhaps  he  is  insane.  Cic.  Quasi  vero  necesse  sit,  as  if 
indeed  it  icere  necessary.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— Ita — »?,  '  so— if,'  means  only — if.  Si  quidem, '  if  indeed,'  sometimes  haa 
nearly  the  force  of  since: 

H6c  ita  jiistum  est,  si  est  voluntarium,  this  is  frtst  only  if  (on  condition  that)  it  i» 
voluntary.  Cic.  Antiquissimum  est  genus  poetarum,  si  quidem  Homerus  fuit  ante 
Romam  conditam,  the  class  of  poets  is  very  ancient,  since  Homer  lived  before  the 
founding  of  Home.  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— Nisi  or  nl,  'if  not,'  is  sometimes  best  rendered  but  or  except: 

Nesci6,  nisi  h6c  video,  /  know  not,  but  (except  that)  /  observe  this.  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — Nisi  si  means  except  if,  unless  perhaps,  unless: 

Nisi  si  qul  scripsit,  unless  some  one  has  ^critten.  Cic. 

NOTE  0.— For  si  to  be  rendered  to  see  if,  to  see  whether,  etc.,  see  539, 1,  note  1. 

NOTE  6.— For  quod  si,  quod  nl,  quod  nisi,  see  453,  6. 

NOTE  7.— The  condition  may  be  variously  supplied,  as  by  a  participle,  by  the  ablativa 
absolute,  or  by  the  oblique  case  of  a  noun  : 

Non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentgB  (=#t  dlrigitis),  retinere  virtutem,  you 
can  not  retain  your  manhood,  if  you  arrange  all  things  with  reference  to  pleasure. 
Cic.  Recte  facto  (  =  si  recte  factum  erit),  laus  proponitur,  if  it  is  (shall  be)  well  done, 
praise  is  offered.  Cic.  Nem6  sine  spe  (=  nisi  spem  haberet)  se  offerret  ad  mortem, 
no  one  without  a  hope  (if  he  had  not  a  hope)  would  expose  himself  to  death.  Cic. 

NOTE  8. — For  Conditional  Sentences  in  the  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  see  527. 

508.  FIRST  FORM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  In 
dicative  in  both  clauses,  assuming  the  supposed  case  as  real, 
may  base  upon  it  any  statement  which  would  be  admissible 
if  the  supposed  case  were  a  known  fact : 

Si  haec  cl vitas  est,  clvis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a  state,  lam  a  citizen.  Cic.  Si 
non  licebat,  nOn  necesse  erat,  if  it  was  not  lawful,  it  was  not  necessary.  Cic. 
Si  vis,  dabO  tib!  testes,  if  you  wish,  I  toill  furnish  you  witnesses.  Cic.  Pluni 
scrlbam,  si  plus  otil  habuero,  /  will  writf  more  if  I  shall  have  (shall  have 
had)  more  leisure.  Cic.  Dolorem  si  non  poterO  frangere,  occultabc,  if  I  shall 
not  be  able  to  overcome  sorrow,  I  shall  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvl  sunt  forls  arma, 
nisi  est  cCnsilium  domi,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  unless  there  is  wisdom 
at  home.  Cic.  Si  domi  sum,  etc. ;  sin  «  forts  sum,  etc.,  if  I  am  at  home,  etc. ; 
but  if  I  am  abroad,  etc.  Plaut.  Nl  puto,  if  I  do  not  think.  Cic. 

1  51 «  from  si  ne,  'if  not,'  'if  on  the  contrary,'  'but  if,'  properly  introduces  a  condi- 
tion in  contrast  with  another  condition  expressed  or. implied.  Thus,  sin  forls  U  in  con 
U-ast  with  si  domi,  and  means  but  if  abroad. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  283 

1.  The  CONDITION  is  generally  introduced,  when  affirmative,  by  si,  with  or  without 
other  particles,  as  quidem,  modo,  etc.,  and  when  negative,  by  #1  nfm,  nisi,  nl. 

2.  The  TIME  may  be  present,  past,  or  future,  but  it  need  not  be  the  same  in  both 
clauses.    Thus  the  Present  or  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  is  often  followed  by 
the  Future,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples.1 

8.  Si  nfm  and  nisi  are  often  used  without  any  perceptible  difference  of  meaning;  but 
strictly  >il  nan  introduces  the  negative  condition  on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while 
nixi  introduces  a  qualification  or  an  exception.  Thus,  in  the  Sf  cond  example  above,  the 
insaning  is,  if  it  wot  not  lawful,  it  follows  that  it  -was  not  necesoary  ;  while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  except  when  there  is  wisdom  at  home. 

4.  The  CONCLUSION  irrespective  of  the  condition  may  assume  a  considerable  variety 
of  form.    Thus : 

Redargue  me  si  mentior,  refute  me  if  I  speak  falsely.  Cic.  Moriar,  nl  put6,  may 
I  die,  if  I  do  notthinJc.  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beatus  futures  sum,  why  should  I  fear 
if  I  am  going  to  be  happy  f  Cic.  SI  quid  habes  certius,  velim  '*  scire,  if  you  have  any 
information  (anything  more  certain),  I  should  like  to  know  it.  Cic. 

5.  GENERAL  TRUTHS  may  be  expressed  conditionally — 

1)  By  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  as  in  the  sixth  example  under  5O8. 

2)  By  the  Second  Person  of  the  Subjunctive  used  of  an  indefinite  you  ( =  any  one)  in 
the  condition,  with  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  : 

Memoria  minuitur,  nisi  earn  exerceas,  tlie  memory  is  impaired,  if  you  do  not  (one 
does  not)  exercise  it.  Cic.  Nulla  est  excusatio  peccati,  si  amici  causa  peccaveris,  it  it 
n<)  eaxusefor  a  fault,  that  you  have  committed  it  for  tlie  sake  of  a  friend.  Cic. 

509.  SECOND  FORM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  condition  as  possible : 

Haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your  country 
should  speak  thus  with  you,  ought  she  not  to  obtain  her  request  ?  Cic.  ImprobC 
fecerfs,  nisi  monuerfs,  you  would  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give  warning. 
Cic.  See  also  6O7,  II. 

NOTK  1.— The  TIME  denoted  by  these  tenses,  the  Present  and  the  Perfect,  is  generally 
either  present  or  future,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the  former  regards 
the  action  in  its progrexn,  the  latter  in  its  completion.  Thus,  loqufltur, '  should  speak ' 
(now  or  at  any  future  time);  so  of  debeat;  but /icerfe,  though  referring  to  the  same 
time  aa  loqudtur,  regards  the  action  as  completed.* 

NOT«  2.— The  Present  Suljjunctive  is  occasionally  used  in  conditional  sentences,  even 
when  the  condition  is  in  itself  contrary  to  fact: 

1  A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  and  the  Future  in 
the  conclusion,  as  plfira  scr'ibam,  tH  pi  fit  fitii  habuero,  corresponds  to  the  Greek  with 
idv  orai/  with  the  Aorist  Subjunctive  In  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  tin- 
conclusion;  as,  ce'os  a.v  iropifcrftf,  yfjpa?  «f«i«  ewflaA^t,  if  you  trill  labor  while  youny,yoit 
will  have  a  prosperous  old  age. 

9  Observe  that  in  each  of  these  examples  the  mood  in  the  conclusion  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  condition.  Thus,  redargue  la  a  command ;  moriar,  a  prayer,  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire;  quid  timeam,  a  deliberative  question  (484,  V.);  and  velim,  a  Potential 
Subjunctive  (486,  note  1). 

3  As  the  Present  Subjunctive  In  point  of  time  is  very  closely  related  to  the  Future 
Indicative  in  conditional  sentences,  so  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  very  closely  related  to 
the  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  though  it  may  refer  to  past  tito*. 


284  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

Tu  Hi  We  sis,  aliter  senti&s,  if  you  were  1  (if  you  were  in  my  place),  you  would  think 
differently.  Ter. 

NOTE  3.— When  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are  of 
course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for  Sequence  of 
Tenses  (490) : 

Metuit  ne,  si  iret,  retraheretur,  ht  feared  lest,  if  he  should  go,  he  would  be  brought 
bach.  Liv. 

510.  THIKD  FOKM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  Im- 
perfect or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  supposed  case  as   contrary  to  fact,  and  simply  state 
what  would  have  been  the  result  if  the  condition  had  been 
fulfilled  : 

Sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  wisdom  would  not  be  sought  (as 
it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing,  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  possemus,  baud 
sane  consilio  egeremus,  if  we  were  able  tn  secure  the  highest  good,  we  should 
not  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished,  he 
would  have  fought.  Nep.  Nunquam  abisset,  nisi  sibi  viam  rnunlvisset,  he 
would  never  have  gone,  if  he  had  not  prepared  for  himself  a  way.  Cic.  See 
also  507,  III. 

NOTE  1.— Here  the  Imperfect  generally  relates  to  present*  time,  as  in  the  first  and 
second  examples;  the  Pluperfect  to  past  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

NOTE  2.— The  Imperfect  sometimes  relates  to  pant  time,  especially  when  it  expresses 
a  continued  action,  or  is  accompanied  by  any  word  denoting  past  time : 

Nee,  si  cuperes,  tibi  id  facere  licuisset,  nor  wouliJ  you  have  been  permitted  to  do  it. 
if  you  had  desired.  Cic.  Num  Opimium,  si  turn  essus,  temerarium  civem  putaivs, 
would  you  have  thought  Opimius  an  audacious  citisen  if  you  had  lived  at  that  time  f 
Cic. 

51 1.  A  CONCLUSION  of  the  FIRST  FORM  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  CONDITION  of  the  SECOND  or  THIRD  FORM.     Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  often  thus  used  in  the  conclusion  (1)  to  denote  a 
general  truth,  and  (2)  to  emphasize  a  fact,  especially  with  a  condition  in- 
troduced by  nisi  or  nl :  * 

Turpis  excfisati6  est,  si  quis  fateatur,  etc. ,  it  is  a  base  excuse,  if  one  admits, 
etc.  Cic.  Intrare,  si  possim,  castra  hostium  volo,  I  wish  to  enter  the  camp  of 
the  enemy,  if  1  am  able.  Liv.  Certamen  aderat,  n!  Fabius  rem  expedisset,  a 
contest  was  at  hand,  but  Fabivs  (lit.,  if  Fabius  had  not)  adjusted  the  affair.* 
Liv.  Nee  veni,  nisi  fata  locum  dedissent,  nor  should  I  have  come,  had  not 
the  fates  assigned  the  place.*  Verg. 

1  This  use  of  the  Imperfect  to  denote  present  time  was  developed  from  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  Subjunctive  tenses.  Thus  the  Present  denotes  that  which  in  likely  to  be, 
the  Imperfect  that  which  WAS  likely  to  be,  and  so  by  implication  that  which  is  not 
Compare  fuit  in  the  sense  of  was,  but  is  not,  471, 1,  2). 

a  Here  the  condition  merely  Introduces  a  qualification  or  an  exception ;  see  508. 3. 

3  The  force  of  the  Indicative  can  not  be  easily  shown  in  a  translation,  hut  the  Latin 
conception  is,  /  hare  not  come  irithout  the  divine  yuislaitctlexnreBRed  in  the  condition). 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  285 

NOTE  1 . — The  future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  conclusion  because  of  its 
near  relationship  in  force  to  the  Present  Subjunctive  : ' 

Si  tnittat.  quid  respondebis,  if  he  should'  send,  what  answer  shall  you  give  t  Lucr. 
Nee  si  cupias,  licebit,  nor,  if  you  should,  desire  it,  will  it  be  allowed.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — In  a  negative  conclusion  with  a  negative  condition,  the  verb  possum  is 
generally  in  the  Indicative  :  a 

Neque  amicitiain  tueri  possumus,  nisi  amicos  diligamus,  nor  should  we  be  able  to 
preserve  friendship,  if  ice  should  not  love  our  friend*.  Cic. 

NOTE  3.— The  flittorical  Tenses  of  verbs  denoting  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity ', 
Ability,  and  the  like,  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sentences,  are  generally  in  the  In- 
dicative : 

Quern,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colere  dobebas,  whom  you  ought  to  have  honored 
(and  would  have  honored),  if  thwe  were  any  filial  affection  in  you,  Cic.  Vix  castra, 
si  oppugnaretur,  tutari  poterat.  he  was  hardly  able  to  defend  the  camp,  if  he  should 
be  attacked.  Liv.  Deleri  exercitus  potuit,  si  persecuti  victores  essent,  the  army  might 
hate  been  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued.  Liv. 

NOTB  4. — The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  of  still  other  verbs  are  sometimes 
similarly  used  when  accompanied  by  paene  or  prope  : 

Pons  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vir  raisset,  the  bridge  almost  furnished  <, 
passage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  furnished  it),  had  there  not  been  one  man.  Liv. 

2.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  and  dus  in  the  conclusion  of  condi- 
tional sentences  are  generally  in  the  Indicative : 3 

Quid  si  hostSs  veniant,  facturl  estis,  what  shall  you  do  if  the  enemy  should 
tome  f  Liv.  Si  quaeriitur,  indicandum  est,  if  inquiry  should  be  made,  in- 
formation must  be  given.  Cic.  Rellctur!  agrOs  erant,  nisi  litteras  misisset, 
they  would  have  left 4  their  lands,  had  he  not  sent  a  letter.  Cic.  Quid  futuruin 
fuit,  si  plebs  agitarl  coepta  esset,  what  would  have  been  the  result,  if  the  ple- 
beians had  begun  to  be  agitated  ?  Liv.  Si  verum  respondere  velles,  haec  erat 
dlcenda,  if  you  wished  to  answer  truly,  this  should  have  been  said.  Cic.  Si 
moratl  essetis,  moriendum  omnibus  ftiit,  if  you  had  delayed,  you  must  all 
have  perished.  Liv. 

NOTE.— When  the  Perfect  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  is  brought  into  a  construction  which  requires  the  Subjunctive,  the  tense  remains 
unchanged,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb : 

Adeo  est  inopta  co&ctus  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Oalliam  repetiturus  fuerit,8  he  teas  so 

1  See  479,  with  foot-note  3.  A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Present  Subjunctive 
in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  conclusion,  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
iav  with  the  Present  Subjunctive  In  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  con- 
clusion: TOWTO  iav  iricoirrfri,  ivprjo-ert,  if  yon  examine  this,  you  will  find. 

3  Here,  too,  the  use  of  the  Indicative  grows  out  of  the  relationship  between  the  mean 
ing  of  pos»um,  denoting  ability,  and  that  of  the  Potential  Subjunctive  denoting  pos- 
sibility. 

*  The  Indicative  is  here  explained  by  the  close  relationship  between  the  ordinary 
meaning  of  the  Subjunctive,and  that  of  the  forms  in  rus  and  dus  denoting  that  something 
is  about  to  be  done  or  ought  to  be  done. 

4  Lit,  were  about  to  leave,  and  so  would  have  left,  had  he  not,  etc. 

6  Here  repetiturus  fuerit  is  in  the  Subjunctive,  not  because  it  is  in  a  conditional  sen 
tence,  but  because  it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Result  with  ut ;  but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  tx» 
cause,  if  it  were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 


286  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

pressed  by  want  that,  if  he  had  not  feared,  ht  would  have  returned  to  Gaul.  Lir 
Haud  dnbium  fnit,  quln  nisi  fir  mate  extrema  agminis  fuissent,  inguns  accipienda  clade« 
fuerit,  there  was  no  doubt  that,  had  not  the  rear  of  the  line  been  made  strong,  a  great 
disaster  must  have  been  sustained.  Liv.  Quaeris  quid  potuerlt  amplius  assequi,  si 
Sclpionis  fulsset  fllius,  you  ask  what  more  he  could  have  attained,  if  he  had  been  the 
ton  of  Scipio,  Cic. 

512.  A  CONCLUSION  of  the  THIRD  FORM  (510)  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  CONDITION  of  the  SECOND  FORM  (509) : 

Si  tecum  loquantur,  quid  responderes,  if  they  should  speak  with  you,  what 
answer  would  you  give  ?  Cic. 

RULE  XLV.    Conditional  Clauses  with  dum,   modo,  ftc  si, 
ut  si,  etc. 

513.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive — 

I.  With   dum,  modo,  dummodo,1  '  if  only,'  '  provided   that ' ;  dum 
ne,  modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  '  if  only  not,'  '  provided  that  not ' : * 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  powers  remain,  if  only 
industry  remains.  Cic.  Dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant,  let  them,  m/ike 
words,  if  only  the  facts  remain.  Cic.  Dummodo  repellat  perlculum,  provided 
he  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  Dum  ne  tibl  videar,  non  laboro,  provided  I  do  not 
seem  so  to  you,  I  do  not  care.  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  '  as  if,'  '  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebO,  ac  si  scripsisses,  I  shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  if)  you  had  written.  Cic.  Jacent,  tanquam  omninO  sine  animd  sint, 
they  He  as  if  (\.  e.,  as  they  would  lie  if)  they  were  entirely  without  mind.  Cic. 
Quam  si  vlxerit  tfccum,  as  if  he  had  lived  with  you.  Cic.  Miserior  es,  quam 
si  ocul&s  non  haberes,  you  are  more  unhappy  than  (you  would  be)  if  you  had 
not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  velut  si  adesset,  horrebant,  they  shuddered  at 
his  cruelty  as  (they  would)  if  he  were  present.  Caes.  Ut  si  in  siiam  rem 
aliena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  appropriate  others'  possessions  to  their  own 
use.  Cic.  Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they  may  hear.  Sen. 

NOTE  1.— In  this  form  of  conditional  sentences,  the  Present  '  or  Imperfect  is  used  of 
present  time,  and  the  Perfect 8  or  Pluperfect  of  past  time ;  see  examples  above. 

1  When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjunctions  often  admit  the  Indicative :  Dum 
leges  vigebant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

s  This  Subjunctive  is  best  explained  as  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  as  indicated  by  the 
negative  ne  (483,  8).  Thus,  modo  permaneat  industria,  'only  let  industry  remain'; 
dum  ne  tibl  videar,  '  let  me  not  meanwhile  seem  so  to  you.'  After  dum  and  dummodo 
the  Subjunctive  may  perhaps  be  explained  as  Potential,  but  the  negative  ne  renders  such 
an  explanation  very  doubtful. 

s  The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  only  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  as 
under  51O;  but  the  Latin  often  regards  the  condition  as  possible,  and  thus  uses  the 
Present  and  Perfect,  M  under  509. 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES.  28? 

NOTE  2.—  C«u  and  slcuti  are  sometimes  used  like  ac  sJ,  ut  gl  ,  etc.  : 
Gen  bella  forent,  a*  if  there  were  wars.  Verg.    Sicuti  audiri  possent,««  if  they  could 
be  /ward.  Sail. 

V.  MOODS  IN  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 

514.  A  concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or  admits  some- 
thing, generally  introduced  in  English  by  though  or  although  :  J 

Quamquam  itinere  fessl  erant,  tamen  procedunt,  although  they  were  weary 
with  the  journey,  they  still  (yet)  advanced.   Sail. 
NOTE.—  The  concessive  particle  is  sometimes  omitted  : 
Bed  babeat,  tamen,  etc.,  but  grant  that  he  has  it,  yet,  etc.  Cic. 

RULE  XL  VI.—  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

515.  Concessive  clauses  take  — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when 
introduced  by  quamquam  : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dlcunt,  though  they  understand, 
they  never  speak.  Cic.  Quamquam  festlnas,  non  est  mora  longa,  though 
you  are  in  haste,  the  delay  is  not  long.  Hor. 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive,  when  introduced 
by  etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsl,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses 
with  si.     Thus  — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  &fact: 
Gaudeo,  etsi  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  /  rejoice,  though  1  know  no  reason 

why  I  should  rejoice.    Plaut. 

2.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed  case 
as  possible  : 

Etsi  nihil  habeat  in  se  gloria,  tamen  virtutem  sequitur,  tiwugh  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself,  yet  it  follows  virtue.  Cic. 

3.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed 
case  as  contrary  to  fact  : 

Etiamsi  mora  oppetenda  esset,  doml  mallem,  even  if  death  ougJd  to  be 
met,  I  should  prefer  to  meet  it  at  home.  Cic. 

III.  The  Subjunctive,  when  introduced  by  licet*  quam- 
vls,  ut,  ne,  cum,  or  the  relative  qui: 


bear  a  close  resemblance  to  conditional  clauses  both  in  form 
and  in  use.  ,*>  f  optimum  e*t,  '  if  it  is  best,'  is  a  condition  ;  etui  optimum  eat,  '  even  if  (or 
though)  it  is  best,'  is  a  concession;  the  one  aKKumen  a  supposed  case,  the  other  a<1mitn 
It  The  Subjunctive  in  concessive  clauses  is  in  general  best  explained  in  the  same  way 
&A  in  conditional  clauses;  see  5O7,  1,  foot-not*  2. 

*  In  origin  licet  is  «imply  the  impersonal  verb  of  tin-  MUM.-  form,  and  the  SubiuncUre 


288  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 

Licet  irrideat,  plus  tamen  ratio  valgbit,  though  he  may  deride,  reason 
will  yet  avail  more,  Cic.  N6n  tu  possls,  quamvls  excellas,  you  would  not 
be  able,  although  you  excel.  Cic.  Ut  dgsint  vires,  tamen  est  iaudanda 
voluntas,  though  the  strength  fails,  still  tJie  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 
N6  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  though  pain  may  not  be  the 
greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil.  Cic.  Cum  domi  divitiae  adfluerent, 
fuere  tamen  elves,  etc.,  though  wealth  abounded  at  home,  there  were  yet 
citizens,  etc.  Sail.  Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  (cum  is)  se  fateatur  pecunias 
cepisse,  acquit  Verres,  though  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  he  has 
accepted  money.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Quamquam  takes  the  Subjunctive — 

1)  When  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires 
that  mood  : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectns,  though  old  age  may  be  without  its  feasts.  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes,  even  in  the  best  prose,  apparently  without  any  special  reason  : 
Quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspicionem  habuerit,  though  not  even  that  gave  rise  to 

any  suspicion.  Cic. 

8)  In  poetry  and  in  late  prose,  the  Subjunctive  with  quamquam  is  not  uncommon. 
In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction : 

Quamquam  invicti  essent,  although  they  were  invincible.  Verg.  Quamquam  pleri- 
que  ad  senectam  pervenlrent,  although  very  many  reached  old  age.  Tac. 

NOTE  2. — Quamquam  and  etsl  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet,  but  yet,  and  yet: 

Qnamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  apeak  f  Cic.  EtsI  tibi  assentior,  and  yet 
I  a/went  to  you.  Cic. 

NOTE  8. — Quamvls  in  the  best  prose  takes  the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception, 
generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos ;  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  often  admits  the 
Indicative: 

Erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carC-bat  nomine,  he  was  of  royal  dignity,  though  he 
teas  without  the  name.  Nep. 

NOTE  4.— Qul  and  cum,  used  concessively,  generally  take  the  Indicative  in  Plautus 
and  Terence,  and  sometimes  even  in  classical  prose  : 

Audi's  praedicare  id,  domi  te  esse  nunc  qui  hie  ades,  do  you  dare  to  assert  this,  that 
you  are  now  at  home,  although  you  are  here  present  f  Plaut  Cum  tabu]  as  emunt. 
tamen  nequeunt,  though  they  purchase  paintings,  they  are  yet  unable.  Sail.  Cum 
Sicilia  vexata  est,  tamen,  though  Sicily  was  disturbed,  yet.  Oic. 

NOTE  5. —  Ut—sic,  or  ut — ita,  'though— yet'  (lit,  'as— so'),  involving  comparison 
rather  than  concession,  does  not  require  the  Subjunctive  : 

Ut  a  proelils  quictem  habuerant,  ita  non  cessaverant  ab  opera,  though  (lit.,  as)  they 
had  had  rest  from  battles,  yet  (lit.,  so)  they  had  not  ceased  from  work.  Liv. 

NOTE  6. — Quamvis  and  quantumvis,  meaning  'as  much  as  you  please,'  'however 
much,'  may  accompany  licet  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Non  possis  tu,  quantumvis  licet  excellas,  you  would  not  be  able,  however  much  you 
may  excel.  Cic. 

clause  which  follows,  developed  from  Result  (SOI,  I.),  is  its  subject  Thus,  in  licet 
irrideat  (lit., '  that  he  may  deride  is  allowed'),  irrideat  is  according  to  the  Latin  con- 
ception the  subject  of  licet.  Quam-vls,  compounded  otquam, '  as,'  and  vis, '  you  wish,' 
means  as  you  wish;  thus,  quamvis  excellas  means  literally  excel  as  you  wish  (i.  e.,  M 
much  as  you  please).  The  Subjunctive  with  quamvls,  ut,  ne,  and  qui,  is  the  Subjunc- 
tive of  l>:.,ir<  ;  that  with  cum  was  developed  from  the  temporal  clause:  see  521. 


CAUSAL    CLAUSES.  289 

VI.  MOODS  IN  CAUSAL  CLAUSES. 
RULE  XL VII. —Moods  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando. 

516.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam, 
quando,  generally  take — 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  to  assign  a  reason  positively ,  on  one's 
own  authority : 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  celebriitote  illos  dies,  since  a  thankt- 
yivinff  has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic.  Gaude  quod  spectant  t8, 
rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you.  Hor. 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully,  or 
on  (mother's  authority  :  * 

SOcrates  accusatus  est,  quo-i  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  ac- 
cused, because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 
Aristides  nonne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  Justus  esset,  was  not  Aristides 
banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  was  just?  Cic. 

1 .  By  a  special  construction,  the  verb  introducing  a  reason  on  another's 
authority  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Infinitive,  depending  upon  a  verb  of  saying 
or  thinking  in  the  Subjunctive : 

Quod  s6  bellum  gesturos  dlcerent  (=  quod  bellum  gesturt  essent,  ut  dice- 
bant),  because  they  were  about,  as  they  said,  to  wage  war.  Caes. 

NOTE.— In  the  same  way  the  Subjunctive  of  a  verb  of  Haying  or  thinking  may  be 
used  in  a  relative  clause  to  introduce  the  sentiment  of  another  person : 

Kmentiendo  quae  sC-  audissa  dlcerent,  by  reporting  falsely  what  they  had  heard 
(what  they  said  they  had  heard).  Sail. 

2.  NON  Quo  ETC. — Non  quo,  non  quod,  non  quln,  rarely  non  quia,  also 
quam  quod,  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  an  alleged  reason  in 
distinction  from  the  true  reason : 

Non  quo  habC-rem  quod  scriberem,  not  because  (that)  /  had  anything  to 
write.  Cic.  Nan  quod  dolcant,  not  because  they  are  pained.  Cic.  Quia  ne- 

1  Quod  and  quia  are  in  origin  relative  pronouns  In  the  neuter.    Thus :  gaudl  quod 
tpectant  tf,  'rejoice  that  (as  to  that)  they  behold  you.1     Quoniam  =  quom-jam, '  when 
ix>w,'  and  quandn  =  quam-dft  (do  =  die), '  on  which  day,' '  when.'    Df>  Is  probably  from 
the  same  root  as  ilum  ;  see  p.  145,  foot-note  1. 

2  Observe  that  causal  clauses  with  the  Indicative  state  a  fact,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  that  fact  as  a  reason  or  cause,  as  In  the  first  example,  but  that  causal  clauses 
with  the  Subjunctive  rimply  axsign  a  reason  without  averting  an;/ fact.    Thus,  in  the 
examples  under  II.,  quod  corrumperet  juventiitem  does  not  state  that  Sm'rate*  cor- 
rupted the  youth,  but  simply  Indicates  the  charge  made  against  him;  nor  does  quod 
)'i»tiu  etset  state  that  Arintides  was  Just,  but  simply  indicates  the  alleged  ground  of 
his  banishment.     For  the  development  of  the  Subjunctive  in  causal  clauses,  see  p.  361 
foot-note  8. 


290  CAUSAL   CLAUSES. 

qulverat  quam  quod  Ign&raret,  because  Tie  had  been  unable,  rather  than  because 
he  did  not  know.  Liv. 

NOTE. — Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  an- 
nounce the  subject  of  remark  : 

Quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemular!  putas,  fallens,  in  thinking  (as  to  the  fact  that 
you  think)  that  1  emulate  Agamemnon,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 

RULE  XL VIII.— Causal   Clauses  with  cum  and  qui. 

517.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui  generally  take 
the  Subjunctive,  in  writers  of  the  best  period  : 

Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes  esse,  since  there  are  gods,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  there  should  be  living  beings.  Cic.  Cum  vita  mettts  plena  sit, 
since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  pe"rge,  since  these  things 
are  so,  proceed.  Cic.  0  vis  veritatis,  quae  (cum  ea)  se  defendat,  O  the 
force  of  truth,  since  it  defends  itself.  Cic.  0  fortunate  adulescCns.  qui 
(cum  lu)  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris,  0  fortunate  youth, 
since  you  (lit.,  who)  have  obtained  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor.  Cic. 

1.  In  early  Latin,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  the  Indicative  is  the 
prevailing  mood  in  causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui,  though  the  Subjunctive 
is  not  uncommon  with  qui : ' 

Quom2  facere  officiurn  scls  tuum,  since  you  know  how  to  do  your  duty. 
Plaut.  Quom  hoc  non  possum,  since  I  have  not  this  power.  Ter.  Qui  ad- 
venistl,  since  you  have  come.  Plaut.  Tuas  qu!  virtutes  sciam,  since  1  know 
your  virtues.  Plaut.  Qui  neminem  videam,  since  I  see  no  one.  Ter. 

2.  Clauses  with  either  cum  or  qui  admit  the  Indicative  in  all  writers, 
when  the  statement  is  viewed  as  a  fact  : 

Habeo  senectuti  gratiam,  quae  mih!  sermonis  aviditatem  auxit,  1  cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation.  Cic.  Gratu- 

1  Clauses  with  cum,  whether  causal  or  temporal,  illustrate  the  gradual  extension  of 
the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses.  Originally  they  took  the  Indicative, 
unless  the  thought  irrespective  of  the  causal  or  temporal  character  of  the  clause  required 
the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Ciceronian  sentence,  Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes 
tuse,  'since  there  are  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  living  beings,'  would  in 
early  Latin  have  been,  Necesse  eat,  cum  sunt  dii,  animantes  esse,  and  would  have  con- 
tained two  distinct  statements,  viz.,  there  are  gods,  and  it  is  necessary  that  there  should 
be  living  beings.  But  in  time  the  causal  clause  lost  so  much  of  its  original  force  as  a 
separate  statement,  and  became  so  entirely  dependent  upon  the  principal  clause,  as  to  be 
little  more  than  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  latter,  like  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (413)  in  a 
simple  sentence.  The  causal  clause  then  took  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  made  but  one  distinct  statement,  which  may  be  approximately  rendered,  in  view 
tlf  (because  of)  the  existence,  of  the  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  liring 
beings.  In  the  same  way,  temporal  clauses  with  cum  sometimes  became  little  more 
than  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  principal  verb;  see  521,  II.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  521, 
II.,  2,  with  foot-note.  For  a  special  treatment  of  these  clauses,  see  Hoffmann, '  Die  Con 
itruction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln,1  and  Lubbert,  '  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.1 

*  See  311,  1,  with  foot-note  4. 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES.  291 

lor  tibi,  cum  tantum  vales,  /  congratulate  you  thai  (in  view  of  the  fact  that) 
you  have  so  great  influence.   Cio. 

8.  When  a  conjunction  accompanies  the  relative,  the  mood  varies  with  the 
conjunction.  Thus— 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  cum,  qulppe,  ut,  utpote : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  M.  Cic.  Quippe  qul  blandiatur, 
since  he  flatters  (as  one  who  flatters).  Cic.  Ut  qul  coldnl  essent,  since  the^ 
were  colonists.  Cic. 

NOTE.— But  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact.  ID 
Ballast  the  Indicative  is  the  regular  construction  after  quippe  : 

Quippe  qui  rfignum  invaserat,  as  fie  had  laid  hold  of  the  kingdom.  Sail. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia,  quoniam  : 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  nOn  possunt,  since  these  things  can  not  be  swe.  Cic. 
Qui  quoniam  intellegi  uoluit,  since  he  did  not  wteh  to  be  understood,  Cio. 

VII.  MOODS  IN  TEMPORAL  CLAUSES.' 
RULE  XLJX.    Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam,  etc. 

518.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam,  postedquam? 
ubl,  ut,  simul  atque^  etc.,  '  after,'  '  when/  '  as  soon  as,' 
the  Indicative  is  used : 

Postquam  vldit,  etc.,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  he  saw, 
etc.  Caes.  Ubi  certiOrgs  factl  sunt,  when  they  were  informed.  Caes.  Id 
ut  audlvit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Postquam  vident,  after  they  saw.3  Sail. 
Postquam  nox  aderat,  when  night  was  at  hand.  Sail. 

NOTE  1.— The  tense  in  these  clauses  is  generally  the  Perfect  or  the  Historical  Pret- 
ft.  but  sometimes  the  Descriptive  Imperfect;  *  see  examples  above;  also  471,  4. 
NOT*  2.— The  Pluperfect  Indicative  is  sometimes  used— 

1)  Especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action  : 

Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.*  Oic.  Anno  tertio  postquam 
profTigerat.  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

2)  To  denote  repeated  action  ?  • 

Ut  quisque  venerat.  sole-bat,  etc.,  ax  each  one  came  (lit.,  had  come),  he  wan  wont, 
etc.  Cic. 

NOTE  8.—  Pootrld-ii  qvam  Is  used  like  pontqiuim  : 

Postridio  quam  tfi  es  profectus,  on  the  day  after  you  started.  (Mo. 

1.  In  Livy  and  the  late  historians,  the  Pluperfect  or  Imperfect  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  to  denote  repeated  action :  * 

1  On  Temporal  Clause*,  see  Hoffmann, '  Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitparti- 
keln.'  and  Lubbert,  '  Die  Syntax  von  Quoin.' 

•  Or  post  quam  and  posted  quam. 
3  See  467,  III.,  with  1. 

«  Bee  469,  I. 

•  And  was  accordingly  at  the  time  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

•  In  this  case  the  Imperfect  Indicative  is  generally  used  in  the  principal  clause,  s«  n 
the  example  here  given. 


292  TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 

Id  ubi  dixisset,  liastam  mittebat,  whenever  he  had  said  that,  he  hurled  (  WM 
wont  to  hurl)  a  spear.  Liv. 

NOTB. — As  a  rare  conception,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postqwam  or  postedquam, : l 

Posteaquam  aedificasset  classes,  after  he  had  built  fleet*.  Cic. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  singular  to  denote  an  indefinite 
subject,  you  =  any  one,  one,  the  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  temporal 
slauses : 

Nolunt  ubi  veils,  ubi  noils  cupiunt,  they  are  •unwilling  when  you  wish  it  ( when 
one  wishes  it),  when  you  are  unwilling  tltey  desire  it.  Ter.  Priusquam  in- 
cipias,  cOnsulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail. 

RULE  L.— Temporal  Clauses  with  duxn,  etc.1 
519.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad, 
in  the  sense  of  WHILE,  AS  LONG  AS,  take  the  Indicative : 

Haec  fScI,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed.  Oic.  Quoad  vlxit, 
as  long  as  he  lived.  Nep.  Dum  I§g6s  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laws  were  in 
force.  Cic.  Donee  eris  fellx,  as  long  as  you  shall  be  prosperous.  Ov. 
Quamdiu  in  prOvincia  fugrunt,  as  long  as  they  were  in  the  province  Cic. 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in 
the  sense  of  UNTIL,  take — 

1.  The  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  I 

Dgllbera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I  return.  Ter.  D6nec 
rediit,  until  he  returned.  Liv.  Quoad  renuntiatum  est,  until  it  wot  (actual- 
ly) announced.  Nep. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  some- 
thing DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED : 

Different,  dum  dSfervSscat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools 
(i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool).  Cic.  Exspectas  dum  dicat,  you  are  waiting  till  he 
speaks  (i.  e.,  that  he  may  speak).  Cic.  Ea  continSbis  quoad  tS  videam, 
you  wiU  keep  them  till  I  see  you.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  poets  and  the  historians,  dum  is  sometimes  used  with  the  Imperfect 
Subjunctive,  and  donee  with  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  like  cum  in  narration  : ' 

Dum  ea  gererentur,  helium  concitur,  while  these  things  tcere  in  progress  (were 
done),  a  war  was  commenced.  Liv.  Nihil  trepidabant  donee  ponte  agerentur,  they  did 
not /ear  at  all  while  they  were  driven  on  the  bridge.  Liv.  Donee  miss!  essent,  until 
they  had  been  sent.  Liv. 

Nora  8. — Donee,  in  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive : 

i  But  the  text  in  these  cases  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

1  See  p.  291,  foot-note  1.  »  See  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES.  293 

K&uuus  servat  violentiam  curstis,  donee  Oceao5  uiisceatu*,  th«  Rhin*  prefer  f«»  the 
tepidity  of  iU  current  till  it  mingle*  with  the  ocean.  T«e. 

RULE    LI.  —Temporal   Clauses  with   antequam  and  prius 

quam. 

520.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam '— 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  : 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic.  Ante- 
quam in  Siciliam  v6m,  before  I  came  into  Sicily.  Cic.  Antequam  cOgnO- 
vero,8  before  I  shall  have  ascertained.  Cic.  Nee  prius  respexl  quam  veni- 
mus,  nor  did  I  look  back  until  we  arrived.  Verg. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive?  when  the  action  is  viewed  as 

SOMETHING  DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  : 

Antequam  dS  r6  publics  dlcam,  exponam  cQnsilium,  1  will  set  forth  my 
plan  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic  (i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking  of 
the  republic).4  Cic.  N6n  prius  duces  dimittunt,  quam  ]  sit  concessum,  they 
did  not  dismiss  the  leaders  till  it  was  granted.  Caes.  Priusquam  incipiSs, 
cdnsultS  opus  est,  before  you  begin  there  is  need  of  deliberation  (i.  e.,  as 
preparatory  to  beginning).8  Sail.  Tempestas  minatur,  antequam  sflrgat, 
the  tempest  threatens,  before  it  rises.  Sen.  Collem,  priusquam  sentiatur, 
co  mm  unit,  he  fortified  the  hill  before  it  was  (could  be)  perceived*  Caes. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the 
Subjunctive : ' 

1  Often  written  ante  quam  and  priwi  quam,  sometimes  with  intervening  wonts 
between  ante  or  priut  and  quam.    See  also  p.  291.  foot-note  1. 

2  The  Future  is  used  only  In  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus  and  Cato. 

»  Remember  that  the  Future  is  supplied  In  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Present;  see  490. 

4  Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as  time,  Antequam  ificam  IH 
oearly  equivalent  to  ut  ported  dlcam :  '  I  will  set  forth  my  views,  that  I  may  after- 
icard  speak  of  the  republic.' 

*  Remember  also  that  in  temporal  clauses  the  second  person  singular  with  an  indefi- 
nite subject,  you  =  any  one,  one.  Is  generally  In  the  Subjunctive ;  see  518,  2. 

•  Potential  Subjunctive ;  see  486,  1 1 1. 

'  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  is  not  always  to  be  refer- 
red to  the  same  principle.  Sometimes,  like  the  Subjunctive  after  <lum,  it  is  best  ex 
plained  as  the  Sultftinetire  of  Purpose,  as  in  the  first  example  and  aoinetlmeg  like  tb* 
Subjunctive  of  the  historical  tenaet  ifter  cum  ;  •*•»•  p.  29r>,  foot-note  1 


294  TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 

NOn  prius  ggressus  est  quam  rex  eum  in  fidem  reciperet,  he  did  not 
withdraw  until  the  King  took  him  under  his  protection.  Nep.  Priusquam 
peteret  consulatum,  insanit,  he  was  insane  before  he  souyht  the  consulship. 
Liv.  Prius  visus  est  Caesar,  quam  fama  perferretur,  Caesar  appeared 
before  any  tidings  were  brought.  Caes.  Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before 
they  took  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam  d6  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in 
Macedonian!  perrgxi,  before  they  were  able  to  hear  of  my  approach,  I  went 
into  Macedonia.  Cic.  Faucis  ante  diebus,  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  a 
few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— When  the  principal  clause  is  negative  and  contains  an  historical  tense,  the 
temporal  clause  generally  takes  the  Perfect  Indicative,  as  in  the  last  example  under  I.,  1 ; 
but  it  sometimes  takes  the  Subjunctive,  as  in  the  first  example  under  II. 

NOTE  2  — Prldie  quam  takes  the  same  moods  as  primquam  : 

Pridio  quam  scrips!,  the  day  before  1  wrote.  Cic.  Pridie  quam  periret,  somniavit, 
he  had  a  dream  on  the  day  before  he  died.  Suet. 

NOTE  3. — For  the  Subjunctive  of  the  second  person  with  an  indefinite  subject,  see 
518,  2. 

RULE  LII.    Temporal  Clauses  with  cum. 

521.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum ' — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put  in  the  Indicative  : 

Cum  verba  faciunt,  majores  suos  extollunt,  when  they  speak,  they  extol 
their  ancestors.  Sail.  Cum  quiSscunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they 
approve.  Cic.  LibrSs,  cum  est  otium,  legere  soleo,  wJien  there  is  (eisure, 
1  am  it/ont  to  read  books.  Cic.  Ad  te  scrlbam,  cum  plus  otil  nactus  ero,  / 
shall  write  to  you  when  1  shall  have  obtained  more  leisure.  Cic.  Omnia  sunt 
incerta  cum  a  jure  discessum  est,  all  things  are  uncertain  when  one  /MS  de- 
parted from  the  right?  Cic. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  temporal  clause  ASSERTS 

AN  HISTORICAL  FACT  I 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.3  Cic.  Non- 
dum  profectus  erat,  cum  haec  gerebantur,  he  had  not  yet  started  when  these 
things  took  place.  Liv.  Turn  cum  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant,  Romae 
fides  concidit,  then,  when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes,  credit  fell  at  Rome. 
Cic.  Cum  quaepiam  cohors  impetum  fecerat,  hostes  refugiebant,  whenever 
any  cohort  made  (had  made)  an  attack,  the  enemy  retreated.  Caes. 

1  See  p.  290,  foot-note  1,  with  the  works  of  Hoffmann  and  Lubbert  there  mentioned. 

*  Discessum  e*t  is  an  Impersonal  Passive,  a  departure  lias  been  min/e  ;  see  3O1, 1. 

*  Here  the  temporal  clause  not  only  defines  the  time  of  pdruit,  but  also  makes  a 
distinct  and  separate  statement,  viz.,  it  was  necessary ;  see  p.  295,  foot-note  1 ;  ulna, 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES.  295 

2.  In  the  Sulywnctwe^  when  the  temporal  clause  sim- 
ply DEFINES  THE  TIME  of  the  principal  action  :  * 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  tabellarii  venerunt,  while  I  was  folding  the 
letter  (i.  e.,  during  the  act),  the  postmen  came}  Cic.  Cum  ex  Aegypto  rever- 
teretur,  decessit,  he  died  while  he  was  returning  (during  his  return)  from 
Egypt.  Nep.  Cum  dlmicaret,  occlsus  est,  when  he  engaged  in  battle,  he  wot, 
"lain.  Nep.  Zenonem,  cum  Athenls  essem,  audiebam  frequenter,  /  often 
heard  Zeno  when  I  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Cum  trldui  viam  perf  ecisset,  nun- 
tiatum  est,  etc.,  wJien  he  had  accomplished  a  journey  of  three  days,  it  was  an- 
nounced, etc.  Caes.  Caesar!  cum  id  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficlscl,  when  this  was  (had  been)  announced  to  Caesar,  he  hastened  to  set 
out  from  the  city.  Caes. 

1)  Cum  with  the  force  of  a  relative  after  tempus,  aetds,  and  the  like,  takes — 

(1)  Sometimes  the  Indicative,  to  state  a  fact: 

Fuit  tempus,  cum  homines  vagabantur,  there  was  a  time  when  men  led  a 
wandering  life.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  hoc  did  poterat,  there  wan  a  time  when  this  could  be  said.  Lir. 

(2)  Generally  the  Subjunctive,  to  characterize  the  period:8 

Id  saeculum  cum  plena  Graecia  poetarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such  that) 
Greece  was  full  of  poet*.  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  cum  deslderes,  the  time  will  come, 
when  you  will  desire.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  arbitrager,  there  was  a  time  when  I  thought.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — Memini  cum. '  I  remember  when,'  generally  takes  the  Indicative,  but  au~ 
did  cum,  video  cum,  and  animadverto  cum,  generally  the  Subjunctive  : 

Memini  cum  mlhl  desipere  videbSre,  I  remember  when  you  seemed  to  me  to  be  un- 
witt.  Cic.  Audivi  cum  diceret,  J  heard  him  say  (lit,  when  he  said).  Cic. 

2)  Cum,  meaningyVw/i  the  time  when,  since,  takes  the  Indicative  : 
Centum  annl  sunt,  cum  dictator  fuit,  it  is  one  hundred  years  since  he  was 

dictator.    Cic. 

NOTK  1.— Cum  .  .  .  turn,  in  the  sense  of  'not  only  .  .  .  but  also,'  'both  .  .  .  aud,' 
generally  takes  the  Indicatire  in  both  clauses,  but  in  the  sense  of '  though  .  .  .  yet,"  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  first  clause  and  the  Indicatire  in  the  second  : 

Cum  antea  distinebar,  turn  hoc  tempore  distineor,  not  only  was  I  occupied  before, 

1  In  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  the  choice  of  mood  often  depends  not  so 
much  upon  the  nature  of  the  thought,  as  upon  the  intention  and  feeling  of  the  writer  ut 
the  moment.  If  he  wishes  to  assert  that  the  action  of  the  temporal  clause  is  an  histori- 
cal fact,  he  uses  the  Indicative;  but  if  he  introduces  it  for  the  sole  purpose  of  defining 
the  time  of  (fie  priiutipal  action,  he  uses  the  Subjunctive.  Thus,  cum  fpislulam  com- 
pliearenn  does  not  assert  that  I  folded  the  letter,  but,  asuumina  that  as  admitted,  it 
makes  use  of  it  in  defining  the  time  of  ri>>ierunt.  See  also  foot-note  under  1  above ;  alsc 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 

3  Like  the  Subjunctive  io  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents;  »oe  5O3.  L 


296  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

bvt  I  am  at«o  occupied  now.  Cic.    Quae  cam  slot  gravia,  turn  illud  acerbiraimnir  eet 
though  these  things  are  severe,  that  is  the  most  grievous.  Cic. 

Nor*  2.  —  For  cum  in  Causal  clauses,  see  517. 

NOTE  8.  —  For  cum  In  Concessive  clauses,  see  515,  III. 


VIII.  INDIKKCT  DISCOURSE—  0ra£i#  ObUqua. 
Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

522.  When  a  writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts,  whether  his 
own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than  in  the  original 
words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the  Indirect  Discourse  —  Ora- 
tiS  ObUqua  :  ' 

PlatOnem  ferunt  in  ftaliam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy. 
Cic.  RespondeO  te  dolorem  ferre  moderate,  I  reply  that  you  bear  the  affliction 
with  moderation.  Cic.  Utilem  arbitror  esse  scientiam,  I  think  that  knowledge 
is  useful.  Cic. 

1.  In  distinction  from  the  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  —  Ordtid  Obtiqua,  the  original 
words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  —  Oratio  Recta. 

2.  Words  quoted  without  change  belong  to  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  : 

Rex  '  duumviros  '  inquit  '  secundum  legem  facio,'  the  king  said,  '  /  appoint 
duumvirs  according  to  law.1  Liv. 

RULE  LIII.    Moods  in  Principal  Clauses. 

523.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE 
on  becoming  INDIRECT  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive 
as  follows  : 

I.  When  DECLARATIVE,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a 
Subject  Accusative. 

Dicebat  animos  esse  dlvlnSs,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 
Cic.  Plat6nem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Taren- 
tum.  Cic.  Cato  mlrari  se  Siebat,  Cato  was  wont  to  say  tliM  hf  wondered. 
Cic.  Hippias  gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sufi  manu  confecisse,2  Hippias 
boasted  that  he  had  made  the  ring  u'ith  his  own  hand.  Cic. 

NOTK.  —  The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  Is  often  omitted,  or  only  implied  in 
some  preceding  verb  or  expression  ;  especially  af^r  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  : 

1  Thus,  in  the  first  example,  Platonem  in  ftaliam  veninse  is  in  the  indirect  dis- 
course; in  the  direct,  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words  of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it 
would  be  :  Plato  in  ftaliam  Tenit. 

4  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read  —  (1)  animi  <eunt  dlvini,  (2) 
PlatS  Tarentum  vtnit,  (8)  tniror,  and  (4)  annulum  mea  manii  confecl.  Observe  that 
the  pronominal  subjects  implied  in  mlror  and  etmfecl  are  expressed  with  the  Infinitive. 
M  mirdrl  xf.  se  confedtse.  But  the  subject  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  read- 
ily supplied;  see  second  example  under  II.,  2.  below, 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  297 

Pythia  praece'pit  at  Miltiadem  imper&torem  sftmerent;  incepta  prospers  future, 
Pythia  commanded  that  they  should,  take  Miltiades  a«  their  commander,  (.telling 
them)  that  their  efforts  would  be  successful.  Nep. 

II.  When  INTERROGATIVE,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibi  vellet,  ciir  venlret,1  to  the 
temands  of  Caesar  he  replied,  what  did  he  wish,  why  did  lie  come  ?  Caes. 

NOTE.— Deliberative  questions  retain  the  Subjunctive  from  the  direct  discourse:. 
In  spem  venerat  so  posse,  etc. ;  cur  fortunam  periclitarOtur,1  he  hoped,  (had  come 
into  hope)  that  he  was  able,  etc. ;  why  should  he  try  fortune  t  Oaes. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative, 
as  in  rhetorical  questions:9 

DocSbant  rem  esse  testimSniO,  etc. ;  quid  esse  levius,  etc.,  they  showed 
that  the  fact  was  a  proof  (for  a  proof),  etc. ;  what  was  more  inconsiderate, 
etc.  ?  Caes.  Respondit,  num  memoriam  deponere  posse,3  he  replied,  could 
he  lay  aside  the  recollection  ?  Caes. 

III.  When  IMPERATIVE,*  they  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Scrtbit  LabienO  cum  legione  veniat,  he  writes  to  Labienus  to  come  (that 
he  should  come)  with  a  legion.  Caes.  Redditur  responsum,  castrls  se 
tenSrent,  the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp. 
Liv.  Mllitgs  certiSres  facit,  86  reficerent,  he  directed  the  soldiers  to  refresh 
themselves.  Caes.  Orabant  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  they  prayed  that  he 
would  bring  them  help.  Caes.  Nuntius  venit,  ne  dubitaret,  a  message  came 
that  he  should  not  hesitate.  Nep.  Cohortatus  est,  ne  perturbarentur,6  he 
exhorted  them  not  to  be  alarmed.  Caes. 

NOTE.— An  affirmative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  without  ut,  except  after  verbs 
of  wishing  and  asking,  but  a  negative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  with  ne ;  see  ex- 
amples. 

'  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  quid  tibl  rf*t  cur  venist 
»nd  (2)  cfirpericlitert 

*  A  question  used  for  rhetorical  effect  in  place  of  an  assertion  is  called  a  Rhetorical 
Question,  as  num  potent,  '  can  he  ? '  =  nfm  potttt, '  he  can  not' ;  quid  tut  turpiun, '  what 
is  baser?'  =  nihil  ext  turpiwi,  '  nothing  is  baser.'    Here  belong  many  questions  which  in 
the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in  the  first  or  in  the  third  person.'    As  such  questions  are 
aquivalent  to  declarative  sentences,  they  take  the  same  construction,  the  Infinitive  with 
its  subject 

*  Direct  discourse — (1)  quid  eat  levin*  =  nihil  ext  ltvin»,  and  (2)  num  memoriam 
deponere  posxum  =  memoriam  tlfpi'mere  m~>n  po»num. 

4  Imperative  sentences  Include  those  sentences  which  take  the  Subjunctive  of  Dt- 
tire;  see  484. 

'  In  tho  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read — (\)cun>  Ugwne  cenl,  (2)  rax- 
Iris  v~i»  teneU,  (3)  to*  refaiU,  (4)  nvbii  auxilium  for,  (&)  mill  dvbitdre,  and  ($)  »' 


298  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

RULE  LTV.— Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

524.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE 
on  becoming  INDIRECT  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Respondit  s§  id  quod  in  Nerviis  fecisset  facturum,1  he  replied  that  he 
would  do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Neroii.  Caes.  Hippias  gloria- 
tus  est,  annulum  quern  haberet  se  sua  nianii  confecisse,2  Hippias  boasted 
that  he  had  made  with  his  own  hand  the  ring  which  he  wore.  Cic. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  sometimes  used.     Thus — 

1)  In  clauses  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun,  or  by  relative  adverbs, 
ubl,  unde,  quare,  etc.,  when  they  have  the  force  of  principal  clauses  (453) : 

Ad  eum  defertur,  esse  clvem  Romanurn  qul  quereretur,  quern  (=  et  eum) 
asservatum  esse,  it  was  reported  to  him  that  there  was  a  Roman  citizen  who 
made  a  complaint,  and  that  he  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  Te  suspi- 
cor  elsdem,  quibus  me  ipsum,  commoverl,  I  suspect  that  you  are  moved  by  the 
tame  things  as  I.  Cic. 

2)  In  clauses  introduced  by  cum,  quam,  quamquam,  quia,  and  some  other 
conjunctions,  especially  in  Livy  and  Tacitus : 

Num  putatis,  dlxisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted?  Cic.  Dl- 
cit,  se  moenibus  inclusos  tenere  eos,  quia  per  agros  vagarl,  he  says  that  he 
keeps  them  shut  up  within  the  walls,  because  (otherwise)  they  would  wander 
through  the  fields.  Liv.  See  also  535,  I.,  5  and  6. 

2.  The  Indicative  is  used — 

1)  In  parenthetical  and  explanatory  clauses  introduced  into  the  Indirect 
Discourse  without  strictly  forming  a  part  of  it : 

Referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis,3  they  report  that  there  if  a 
forest  which  is  called  Bacenis.  Caes.  Audio  Gellium  philosophOs  qul  tune 
erant8  convocasse,  I  hear  that  Gellius  called  together  the  philosophers  of  that 
day  (lit.,  who  then  were).  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  in  clauses  not  parenthetical,  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact 
stated,  especially  in  relative  and  temporal  clauses : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vlcl,  quam  Gallls  concesserat,  omnes  disces- 
sisse,  he  was  informed  that  all  had  withdrawn  from  that  part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Dlcunt  ilium  diem  clarissimum 
fuisse  cum  domum  reductus  est  a  patribus,  they  say  that  the  day  when  he  was 
9onducted  home  by  the  fathers  was  the  most  illustrious.  Cic. 

525.  TENSES  IN  THE  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  generally  conform 
to  the  ordinary  rules  for  the  use  of  tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  and 
Infinitive ;  *  but  notice  the  following  special  points : 

i  Direct,  faciarn  id  quod  in  Nerviis  fed. 
3  Direct,  annulum  quern  habeO  med.  manu  confecl. 

*  These  clauses,  quae  appellatur  BacSnis  and  qul  tune  erant,  are  not  strictly  part* 
»f  the  general  report,  but  explanations  added  by  the  narrator. 
«  See  490-406  and  537 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  299 

1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  may  be  used  even  after  an  historical  tense, 
to  impart  a  more  lively  effect  to  the  narrative : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sib!  dentur,  sese  pacem  ease  facturum,  Caesar 
replied,  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  would  makepeace.  Caes.  Ex- 
itus  fuit  OratiOnis,  neque  ullos  vacare  agr6s,  qui  darl  possint,  the  close  of  the 
oration  was,  that  there  were  (are)  not  any  lands  unoccupied  which  could  (can) 
\>e  given.  Caes. 

2.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a  subordinate  clause  of  the  direct  discourse 
'js  changed  in  the  indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a  principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  historical  tense : 

Agunt  ut  dlmicent ;  ib!  imperiutn  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  they  arrange 
that  they  shall  fight ;  that  the  sovereignty  shall  be  on  the  side  which  shall  win 
the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparebat  regnaturum 
qui  vlcisset,1  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  king  who  should  conquer.  Liv. 

NOTE.— For  Tenses  in  Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse,  see  537. 

Pronouns  and  Persons  in  Indirect  Discourse, 

526.  In  passing  from  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  to  the  INDIRECT, 
pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  generally  changed  to 
pronouns  of  the  third  person,2  and  the  first  and  second  persons  of 
verbs  are  generally  changed  to  the  third  person  : 

Gl&riatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  cc-nfecisse,8  he  boasted  that  he  had  made 
the  ring  with  his  own  hand.  Cic.  Redditur  respSnsum,  castrls  se  tenerent,* 
the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp.  Liv.  Re- 
spondit, si  obsides  ab  iis  sibf  dentur,  sese  cum  ils  pacem  esse  factQrum,6  ht 
replied  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  to  him  by  them,  he  would  make  peace 
with  them.  Caes. 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

527.  Conditional  sentences,  in  passing  from  the  DIRECT  DIS- 
COURSE to  the  INDIRECT,  undergo  the  following  changes : 

1  In  the  direct  discourse— (1)  ibl  imperium  erit,  undt  vlcVtria  fuerit,  and  (2)  reg 
natrit  qui  vlcerit. 

1  Thus — (1)  ego  is  changed  to  sul,  sibl,  etc^  or  to  ipse ;  meux  and  noster  to  sun*  ;  (2) 
t«  to  IK  or  Hie,  sometimes  to  mil,  etc. ;  tuus  and  venter  to  suits  or  to  the  Genitive  of  in,' 
tnd  (8)  hie  and  ist«  to  ilfe.  But  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  may  of  course  be  used 
in  the  indirect  discourse  in  reference  to  the  reporter  or  author,  and  the  pronoun  of  the 
-rrmni  person  in  reference  to  the  person  addressed  :  Adflrmuvl  quidvis  m?  perpessii- 
rutn,  /  asserted  that  I  would  endure  anything.  Cic.  Respondeo  ti:  dolorem  ferre  mode- 
rate, I  reply  that  YOU  bear  the  affliction  with  moderation.  Cic. 

3  Direct,  annulum  ego  mea  manu  confecl.    Ego  becomes  ««,  and  w«<7,  mid. 

4  Direct,  catttrw  vos  tenfte.     Vos  becomes  sf,  and  tenete,  tenerent. 

*  Direct,  si  obsides  a  vobls  mihl  dabimtur,  vfiblscum  piicem  fa  dam.  A  vobls 
becomes  ab  ils;  mihl  becomes  sibl;  voblscum,  cum  iis;  and  the  implied  subject  o/ 
facia  m  becomes  sese,  the  subject  of  etse  facturum. 


300  INDIRECT  JfllSUOURSE. 

I.  In  the  FIRST  FORM,  the  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Subjunctive  in  tn* 
condition  and  to  the  Infinitive  in  the  conclusion : 

Respondit,  si  quid  Caesar  se  velit,  ilium  ad  s8  venire  oportere,1  he  replied, 
if  Caesar  wished  anything  of  him,  he  ought  to  come  to  him.  Caes. 

NOTE. — In  all  forms  of  conditional  sentences  the  conclusion,  when  imperative,  and 
generally  when  interrogative,  takes  the  Subjunctive  according  to  523  : 

Responderunt.  si  non  aequum  exlstimaret,  etc.,  cur  postularet,"  etc.,  they  replied,  if 
Tie  did  not  think  it  fair,  etc., -why  did  he  demand,,  etc.  Caes.  Bum  certiorem  fecc- 
mnt,  si  suas  res  manere  vellet,  Alcibiadem  persequeretur,3  they  informed  him  that  if 
he  wished  his  institutions  to  be  permanent,  he  should  take  measures  against  Alci- 
biades.  Nep.  Die  quidnam  facturus  fueris,  si  censor  fuisses,4  say  what  you  would 
have  done,  if  you  had  been  censor.  Liv. 

II.  In  the  SECOND  FORM,  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  the  con- 
dition remains  unchanged  after  a  principal  tense,  but  may  be  changed s  to 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  and  in  the  conclu- 
sion it  is  changed  to  the  Future  Infinitive: 

Kespondit,  si  stlpendium  remittatur,  libenter  sese  recusaturum  populi 
ROmanl  amlcitiam,6  he  replied  that  if  the  tribute  should  be  remitted,  he  would 
gladly  renounce  the  friendship  of  the  Roman  people.  Caes. 

NOTE. — See  note  under  I. 

III.  In  the  THIRD  FORM,  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  remains 
unchanged  in  the  condition,  regardless  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  in  the  conclusion  it  is  changed  to  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive  in  -rus 
fuisse,  rarely  to  that  in  -rus  esse: 

Respondit,  si  quid  ipsl  a  Caesare  opus  esset,  sese  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse,' 
he  replied  that  if  he  wanted  anything  of  Caesar,  he  would  ham  come  to  him. 
Caes.  ClSmitabat,  si  ille  adesset,  venturSs  esse,7  he  cried  out  that  they  would 
come  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  conclusion,  the  periphrastic  form  futurum  fuisse  ut  with  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  and  sometimes  in  the  Active: 

Nisi  nuntil  essent  allatl,  existimabant  futurum  fuisse  nt  oppidum  amitteretur,7  they 
thought  that  the  town  would  have  been  lost,  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— In  conditional  sentences  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in 
the  condition,  and  with  an  historical  tense  of  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion — 

1  Direct,  si  quid  Caesar  me  vult,  ilium  ad  me  venire  oportet.  For  change  of  pro 
nouns  see  536,  and  for  the  tense  of  relit  see  525. 1. 

*  Direct,  si  non  aequum  esKlstimas,  curpostuldst 

3  Direct,  si  tuds  res  manert  vis,  Alcibiadem  persequere.  Notice  change  in  the 
pronoun  and  in  the  person  of  the  verb;  see  526. 

*  Direct,  quidnam  fecisses  (orfactiirusfuteti),  si  censor  fuisses. 
8  But  is  often  retained  unchanged  according  to  525, 1. 

8  Direct,  si  stipendium  remittatur,  libenter  recusem  populi  Romu.nl  amlcitiam. 
or  si  stlpendium  remitt?tur,  libenter  reciisabo  populi  Romanl  amlcitiam.  Observe 
that  these  two  forms  become  identical  in  the  indirect  discourse. 

i  Direct— (1)  si  quid  mihi  ii  Caesare  opus  esset,  ad  eum  vfnissetn  ;  (2)  il  4lh 
t.  tfnirent :  and  (3)  nifti  nftntii  essent  allatl,  oppidum  dtninttum  esset. 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES.  301 

1)  The  Indicative  is  generally  changed  to  the  Perfect  Infinitive,  : 

Memento  i stain  dignitatem  te  non  potuisse  consequi,  nisi  meis  cdnsiliis  paruissos,1 
"wnember  that  you,  would  not  have  been  able  to  attain  that  dignity,  if  you  had  not 
followed  my  counsels.  Cic. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  if  the  context  requires  that 
mood: 

Quis  dubitat  quin  si  Saguntinls  tulissemus  operam,  aversuri  bellum  fuerimus,1  who 
doubts  that  ice  should  have  averted  the  wart  if  we  had  carried  aid'to  the  Sagun- 
ttnes  t  Liv.  Scimus  quid,  si  vixisset,  facturus  fuerit,1  we  know  what  he  would  have 
font,  if  he  had  lived.  Liv. 

Indirect  Clauses. 

528.  The  indirect  discourse  in  its  widest  application  includes — 

1.  Subordinate  clauses  containing  statements  made  on  the  authority  of 
any  other  person  than  the  writer;  see  516: 

Omnes  librOs  quos  frater  suus  rellquisset  mih!  donavit,  he  gave  to  me  all 
the  books  which  his  brother  had  left?  Cic. 

2.  Indirect  questions ;  see  529,  I. 

NOTB. — A.  clause  which  involves  a  question  without  directly  asking  it  is  called  an  In- 
direct or  Dependent  Question  : 

Quaesivit  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  he  asked  whether  hi*  shield  was  safe.3  Cic. 

3.  Many  subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a 
Subjunctive ;  see  529,  II. 

RULE  LV.-  -Moods  in  Indirect  Clauses. 

529.  The  Subjunctive  is  used — 
I.  In  indirect  question: 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissiml  homings  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesierfts,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked 
whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  tJie  soul 
knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Quid  digs  ferat  incertum  est,  what  a  day 
will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quaeritur  quid  futurum  sit,  what  will 
be,  is  the  question.  Cic.  Quaerit  qulnam  eventus,  si  foret  bcllatura,  futurus 
fuerit,  he  asks  what  would  have  been  the  result  if  war  had  been  waged.  Liv. 
Dubito  num  debeam,  7  doubt  whether  I  ought.  Plin.  Incerta  feror  si  Jup- 
piter  velit,  7  am  rendered  uncertain  whether  Jupiter  wislies.  Verg.  Ut  te 
oblectes  sclre  cupio,  /  wish  to  know  how  you  amuse  yourself .  Cic.  Difficile 

1  Direct — (1)  iittam  dignitatem  cfmsequl  nfm  potuititl,  nixi  me~>*  efm-siUlt  pdruis- 
oft;  (2)  «i  Saguntinls  tuliwemm  operam,  bellum  avemfiri  fuimus ;  (8)  quid,  si 
eivisset,  facturue  fuit  t 

*  That  is,  which  he  said  his  brother  had  left. 

8  Here  no  question  is  directly  asked.  We  have  simply  the  statement,  'he  ask*»d 
whether  his  shield  was  safe,'  but  thi«  statement  involves  the  question,  tafansne  est 
, '  is  my  shield  safe  ? ' 


302  INDIRECT  CLAUSES. 

dictu  est  utrum  timuerint  an  dllSxerint,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  they 
feared  or  loved.   Cic. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  01 
upon  another  Subjunctive : 

Nihil  indlgnius  est  quam  eum  qul  culpa  careat  suppliciS  non  carere, 
nothing  is  more  shameful  than  that  he  who  is  FREE  from  fault  should  not  be 
exempt  from  punishment.  Cic.  Utrum  difficilius  esset  negfire  tibi  an  ef- 
ficere  id  quod  rogares  diu  dubitavT,  whether  it  would  be  more  difficult  to  re- 
fuse your  request  or  to  do  that  which  YOU  ASK,  /  have  long  doubted.  Cic. 
Recordatione  nostrae  amlcitiae  sic  fruor  ut  beate  vixisse  videar  quia  cum 
Scipione  vixerim,  I  so  enjoy  the  recollection  of  our  friendship  that  I  seem  to 
have  lived  happily  because  I  HATE  LIVED  with  Sdpio.  Cic.  Naevium  rogat 
ut  curet  quod  dfaisset,  he  asked  Naevius  to  attend  to  that  which  HE  HAD  MEN- 
TIONED. Cic.  Vereor  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  I  fear  that, 
while  I  WISH  to  diminish  the  labor,  I  shall  increase  it.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a  Subjunctive,  observe — 

1)  That  the  Subjunctive  is  used  when  the   clauses  are  essential  to  the  general 
thought  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  just  given. 

2)  That  the  Indicative  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  in  a  measure  parenthetical,  and 
when  they  give  special  prominence  to  the  fact  stated  : 

MTlites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  fugerant  persequerentur,  he  sent  soldiers  to  pursue  those 
who  had  fled  (i.  e.,  the  fugitives).  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est,  ut  earn,  vel  in  iis  quos 
nunquam  vidimus,  diligamus,  such  is  the  force  of  integrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  those 
whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— In  clauses  introduced  by  dum,  the  Indicative  is  very  common,  especially  in 
the  poets  and  historians  : 

Fuere  qul,  dum  dubitat  Scaevmus,  hortarentur  Ksonem,  there  were  those  who  ex- 
horted Piso,  while  Scaevinus  hesitated.  Tac.  See  also  467, 4. 

1.  Indirect  or  dependent  questions,  like  those  not  dependent  (351, 1),  are 
introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns  or  other  interrogative  words,  as  quit, 
qul,  quails,  etc. ;  quid,  cur,  lie,  nonne,  num  ;  rarely  by  si, '  whether,'  and  ut, 
4  how ' ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  1. — 55.  is  sometimes  best  rendered  to  see  whether,  to  see  if,  to  try  if,  etc. . 

Te  adeunt,  si  quid  veils,  they  come  to  you  to  see  whether  you  wish  anything.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  poets  si  is  sometimes  similarly  used  with  the  Indicative : 

Inspice  si  possum  donata  reponere,  examine  me  to  see  whether  I  am  ab%e  to  restort 
your  gifts.  Hor. 

NOTE  3. — In  indirect  questions  num  does  not  necessarily  imply  negation. 

NOTE  4. — An  indirect  question  may  readily  be  changed  to  a  direct  or  independ- 
!>nt  question.1 

2.  An  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 
question,  is  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  inserted  after  the  principal  verb : 

1  Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is,  our  doctissiml  homini* 
dissentiunt, '  why  do  the  most  learned  men  disagree?1  In  the  second,  nonne  putds, 
'do  you  not  think  ? ' 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS.  303 

Ego  ilium  nescid  qul  fuerit,  7  do  not  know  (him)  who  he  was.  Ter.  Die 
tominem  qul  sit,  tell  who  the  man  it.  Plaut. 

3.  Indirect  double  questions  are  generally  introduced  by  the  same  inter- 
rogative particles  as  those  which  are  direct  (353).     Thus — 

1)  They  generally  take  utrum  or  -ne  in  the  first  member  and  an  in  the 
second : 

Quaeritur  virtus  suamne  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructus  aliquos  ex- 
petatur,  it  is  asked  whether  virtue  is  sought  for  its  own  worth,  or  for  certain  ad 
Vantages.  Cic. 

2)  But  they  sometimes  omit  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  take  in 
the  second  an  or  -ne  in  the  sense  of  or,  and  neene  or  an  non  in  the  sense  of 

.  or  not  : 

Quaeritur  natura  an  doctrlna  possit  efficl  virtus,  it  is  asked  whether  virtue 
can  be  secured  by  nature,  or  by  education.  Cic.  Sapientia  beatos  elficiat  necne 
quaestid  est,  whether  or  not  wisdom  makes  men  happy  is  a  guest-ion,.  Cic. 

NOTK  1. — Other  forms,  as  -ne  .  .  .  -ne,  an  .  .  .  an, are  rare  or  poetic: 

Qul  teneant,  homincsne  feraene,  quaerere,  to  ascertain  who  inhabit  them,  w/iether 
men  or  beast*.  Verg. 

NOTE  2. — An,  in  the  sense  of  whether  not,  implying  an  affirmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty :  dubito  an,  nescid  an,  hand  scio  an, '  I  doubt 
whether  not,' '  I  know  not  whether  not'  =  '  I  am  inclined  to  think';  dubium  est  an,  in- 
certuni  est  an, '  it  is  uncertain  whether  not '  =  '  it  is  probable ' : 

DubitO  an  ThrasybQlum  pritnum  omnium  ponam,  I  doubt  whether  I  should  not 
place  TTirasybulus  first  of  all  (i.  e.,  I  am  inclined  to  think  I  should).  Nep. 

NOTE  8.— An  sometimes  seems  to  have  the  force  otaut: 

Cum  Simonides,  an  quis  alius,1  polllcerctur,  when  Simonides  or  some  other  one 
promised.  Cic. 

4.  The  Subjunctive  is  put  in  the  periphrastic  form  in  the  indirect  ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  represents  a.  periphrastic  form  in  the  direct  question,  an<? 
(2)  generally,  not  always,  when  it  represents  a  Future  Indicative ;  see  the 
fifth  and  sixth  examples  under  529, 1. 

5.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  must  be  carefully  distinguished — 

1)  From  clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  or  relative  adverbs. 
These  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  understood,  and 
are  never,  an  a  whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  while  indirect  ques- 
tions arc  generally  so  used : 

Dlcam  quod  sentio  (relative  clause),  I  will  tell  that  which  (id  quod)  I  think* 
Cic.  Dicam  quid  intellegam  (indirect  question),  I  will  tell  what  J know.  Cic. 
Quaeramus  ub!  maleficium  est,  let  us  seek  there  (ib!)  where  the  crime  is.  Cic. 

2)  From  direct  questions  and  exclamations : 


1  Some  critics  treat  an  quis  alius  as  a  direct  question  inserted  parenthetically :  or 
v>at  it  tome  other  one  t 

a  In  the  first  and  third  examples,  qiiod  sentio  and  ubl  .  .  .  est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses;  id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod,  and  ibi  as  the  antecedent 
or  correlative  of  ubl ;  but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intellegam  is  an  indirect  ques- 
tion and  the  object  otdlcam  :  I  will  Ull  (what?)  what  I  know  (L  e.,  will  answer  that 
question). 


304  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Quid  agendum  est?  nesciS,  what  it  to  be  done?  I  know  not.1  Cio.  Vide, 
quam  conversa  res  est,  see  !  how  changed  is  the  case.  Cio. 

3)  From  clauses  introduced  by  nesd6  quiz  —  quldam*  '  some  one,'  nesciii 
qvomodo  =  quodammodo,  '  in  some  way,'  mlrum  quantum,  '  wonderfully 
much,'  '  wonderfully,'  etc.  These  take  the  Indicative  : 

NesciO  quid  animus  praesagit,3  the  mind  forebodes,  I  know  not  what.  Ter. 
Id  mlrum  quantum  profuit,  this  profited,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  (i.  e.,  it 
wonderfully  profited).  Liv. 

6.  PERSONAL  CONSTRUCTION. — Instead  of  an  impersonal  verb  with  an  indirect 
question  as  subject,  the  personal  construction  is  sometimes  used,  as  follows : 

Perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves,4  it  is  seen  how  inconstant  they  are  !  Cic. 

T.  The  INDICATIVE  IN  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  is  sometimes  used  in  early 
Latin  and  in  the  poets,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  memorare  velim,  quam  fidell  animo  fui,  possum,  if  I  should  wish  to 
mention  how  much  fidelity  I  showed,  I  am  able.  Ter. 

530.  The  directions  already  given  for  converting  the  DIRECT  DIS- 
COURSE, Oratib  Recta,  into  the  INDIRECT,  Oratio  Obllqua,  are  further  illus- 
trated  in  the  following  passage  from  Caesar : 

DIRECT  DISCOUESH.  INDIKECT  DISCOURSE. 

Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit :  '  Ne  Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit,  ne  quid 
quidgravius  in  fratrem  statuerls ;  sew  gravius  in  fratrem  statueret ;  scire  si 
ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quisquam  ex  eo  ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quemquam  ex  eo 
plus  quam  ego  doloris  capit,  propterea  plus  quam  se  doloris  capere,  propterea 
quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  doml  quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  donii 
atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum  atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum 
propter  adulescentiam  poterat,  per  me  propter  adulescentiam  posset,  per  & 
crevit ;  quibus  opibus  ac  nervls  non  crecisset ;  quibus  opibus  ac  nervls 
solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam,  sed  non  solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam, 
pa*3ne  ad  perniciem  meam  utitur  ;  sed  paene  ad  perniciem  suam  utere- 
ego  tamen  et  amore  fratarno  et  exls-  tur  ;  s'ese  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et 
timatione  vulgl  commoveor.  Quod  si  existimatione  vulgl  commoveri.  Quod 
quid  el  a  te  gravius  accident,  cum  si  quid  el  a  Caesare  gravius  accidisset, 
ipse  hunc  locum  amlcitiae  apud  te  cum  ipse  eum  locum  amicitiae  apud 
teneam,  nemo  existimdbit,  n6n  med  eum  teneret,  neminem  existimaturum, 
volunt&te  factum ;  qua  ex  re  totius  non  svd  voluntate  factum ;  qua  ex  re 
Galliae  animl  a  me  d/vertentur.''  futurum  utl  totius  Galliae  animl  a  si 

dverterentur.   Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  20. 

1  Quid  agendum  sit  nesoio,  *  I  know  not  what  is  to  be  done,'  would  be  an  indirect 
question. 

9  See  191,  note. 

*  Praesagit  does  not  depend  upon  nescifi,  but  Is  entirely  independent.  Nescii  quid 
animus praetagiat  would  be  an  indirect  question,  and  would  mean,  /  know  not  what 
the  mind  forebode*. 

4  Lit,  they  are  seen.  Observe  that  this  personal  construction  corresponds  to  the 
Active,  perspiciunt  ef>»  quam  sint  leves,  *  they  perceive  (them)  how  Inconstant  they  are.' 
Se«  also  ego  ilium  nesoiS  qu'<  fuerit,  529, 2. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  805 

NOTE  —In  this  illustration  observe  the  following  points: 

1)  That  the  Indicative  In  the  principal  clauses  of  the  direct  discourse  to  changed  to 
the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive  in  the  indirect,1  and  that  the  Subjunctive,  sta- 
tueriv,  denoting  incomplete  action,  is  changed  to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  the 
historical  tense,  coepit. 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  verbs  denoting  incomplete  action  are  changed 
to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  while  those  denoting  completed  action  are  changed  to  the 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive.3 

8)  That  void  becomes  wire  te  (I. «.,  that  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  generally  ex 
Sressed). 

4)  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  changed  to  refiexires;  and  that  those  of 
the  second  person  are  changed  to  is.3 

531.  The  process  by  which  the  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  Oratio  Obllqua. 
is  changed  to  the  DIRKCT,  Oratio  Recta,  is  illustrated  in  the  following  pas 
gages  from  Caesar : 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  DIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Bespondit,  translate   Rhenum  s&e  Respondit :  '  Transit  Rbenum  nOn 

n6n  gitd  sponte,  sed  rogdtum  et  arces-  med  sponte,  sed  rogdtus  et  arctssit/ix 

ntum  a  Gallls.    Se  prius  in  Galliam  a  Gallls.    Ego  prius  in  Galliam  vein 

venisse    quam    populum    Romdnum.  quam  populus   Romdnvs.     Quid  tilA 

Quid  sibl  vellet  ?    Cur  in  suds  posses-  vis?    Cur  in  meas  possessiones  ve- 

siones  venlret?  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  44.  nlsf 

Ita  respondit,  eO  tibl  minus  dubi-  Ita    respondit :    '  Eo  miM  minus 

tationis  dan  quod  eas  res  quas  legatl  dubitatiOnis  datur  quod  eas  res  quas 

Helvetil  commemordssent  memoria  te-  *5«,  legatl  Helvetil,  commemordvistis, 

n&ret.   Quod  si  veteris  contumeliae  ob-  memoria  teneo.     Quod  si  veteris  con- 

llvlscl  vellet,  num  etiam  recentium  in-  tumeliae  obllvlscl  rol-o,  num  etiam  re- 

juriarum  memoriam  deponere  posse?  centium  injuriariim    memoriam   df-- 

Cum  ea  ita  sint,  tamen,  si  obsides  ab  ponere  possum?    Cum  Ttaec  ita  sint, 

tit  sibl  dentur,  sese  cum  Us  pftcem  es*t  tamen,  si  obsides  ft  robls  miM  daburt- 

facturum.    Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  14.  tur,  vobiscutn  pacem/actaj».' 

NOTE. — In  these  illustrations  observe  the  following  points : 

1)  That  in  the  principal  clauses  (1)  the  fnfinitire*  with  xe  or  «w,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, are  changed  to  the  fimt  per/ton  of  the  IixUcafire  ;  *  (2)  other  Infinitives  are 
»Iso  changed  to  the  Indicative,  but  the  person  is  determined  by  the  context;  5  and  (3) 

1  Thus  ncifi  becomes  tcire,;  capit,  capere;  commoreor,  commoverl ;  exlstinitlbit, 
teeitftimtitfirum  (esse);  and  ticertentur,  fiiti'irum  vtl  tiverterentur.  This  last  form, 
futiirum  utl  dterterentur,  is  the  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive  Passive;  see  537,  8. 

1  Thus  poterat  becomes  posset;  titittir,  titeretur;  teneam,  Untrtt;  butcre*!<  be- 
comes crSm'snet;  acciderit,  acciditset. 

*  Thus  (1)  ego  Is  changed  to  si;  mi  to  *? ;  meam  to  truam;  med  to  sua;  »nd  (2) 
tf  to  ewn  ;  hunc  to  eum. 

*  Thus  trdnmsse  sf«e  is  changed  to  t'-dnsil ;  s8  v&nisse  to  ego  venl ;  tf.si  tue  fac- 
Iftrum  \nfadam ;  pnsse,  with  sf  understood,  to  possum. 

*  Thus  minus  dari ^^  becomes  minus  <latvr;  butifthf  subject  of  the  Infinitive  Is  of 
the  second  person,  the  Indicative  will  also  be  of  that  person.    ReitpondtO  t£  dolorem 
ferr«  moderate  thus  becomes  respond eo,  *  dolorem  moder&te  /«r«;'  see  p.  29V,  toot 
aotoi. 


306  INFINITIVE. 

Subjunctives  are  changed  to  tbe  Indicative  after  interrogative  words,'  and  to  the  >m 
peratiee  in  other  situations.3 

9)  That  in  the  snbordinate  clauses  the  Subjunctive,  unless  required  by  the  thought 
Irrespective  of  the  indirect  discourse,  is  changed  to  the  Indicative.3 

8)  That  the  reflexive  pronouns  stil,  sibl,  etc.,  and  suus  are  changed  (1)  generally  to 
pronouns  of  the  first  person,  but  (2)  sometimes  to  those  of  the  second  person.4 

4)  That  is  and  ille  are  (1)  generally  changed  to  tit  or  Ale,  but  (2)  sometimes  retained.5 

5)  That  a  noun  referring  to  the  person  or  persons  addressed  may  be  put  in  tbu 
Vocative  preceded  by  tu  or  ws.« 

• 

SECTION   VII. 

INFINITIVE.— SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES. 

I.  INFINITIVE. 

532.  The  Infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun  with  special  character- 
istics.    Like  verbs,  it  has  voice  and  tense,  takes  adverbial  modi- 
fiers, and  governs  oblique  cases.7 

RULE   L VI.     Infinitive. 

533.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or 
qualify  their  meaning : 

Audeo  dlcere,  I  dare  say  (I  venture  to  say).  Cic.  Haec  vTtare  cupimus, 
we  desire  to  avoid  time  things.  Cic.  CCnstituit  non  progredl,  he  decided 

1  Thus  quid  vellet  is  changed  to  quid  vis  t  cur  veniret  to  cur  nenis  t  Vellet  and 
cenlret  are  in  the  Imperfect  simply  because  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  and  are 
therefore  changed  to  the  Present  in  the  direct  discourse.  In  deliberative  questions 
(484,  V.)  the  Subjunctive  is  retained  in  the  direct  discourse. 

a  Thus  cum  legione  venial,  under  523,  III.,  becomes  cum  legiontvenl.  The  Sub- 
junctive may  of  course  be  retained  in  tbe  direct  discourse  whenever  the  thought  requires 
that  mood. 

3  Thus  commemordssent,  pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  is  changed  to  com- 
memordvistis  ;  tentret  to  teneo ;  vellet  to  void  ;  dentur  to  dabuntur.    Sint  is  retained 
unchanged  because  required  in  a  causal  clause  with  cum ;  see  517. 

4  Thus  (1)  trdnsisse  sese  is  changed  to  transit,  with  subject  implied  in  the  ending; 
rud  to  med  ;  se  vlnisse  to  ego  venl,  with  emphatic  subject ;  » ud#  to  metis  ;  sibl  to  mihi ; 
tette  esse  factftrum  t/ofaciam  ;  (2)  sibl  to  tibl,  in  quid  sibl  relief.    As  the  subject  of  an 
Infinitive  (536),.  «e  or  sese  often  corresponds  to  the  pronominal  subject  implied  in  the 
•nding  of  a  finite  verb;  see  p.  187,  foot-note  5. 

6  Thus  (1)  ab  iis  is  changed  to  a  vobls;  cum  iis  to  vobteoum;  ea  ita  sint  to  haeo 
ita  sint;  (2)  eas  res  is  retained. 

•  Thus  legdtl  ffelvetii,  the  subject  of  commemorassent,  is  changed  to  vos,  leffiitt 
Helvetil 

7  Originally  the  Latin  Infinitive  appears  to  have  been  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract 
verbal  noun,  and  to  have  been  used  to  denote  the  purpose  or  end  (384,  1,  8)  for  which 
inything  is  or  is  done.    Being  thus  only  loosely  connected  with  the  verb  of  the  sentence. 
tt  readily  lost  its  special  force  as  a  case  and  soon  began  to  be  employed  with  considerabl* 
freedom  in  a  variety  of  constructions.     In  this  respect  the  history  of  the  Inflnitict  resein. 


INFINITIVE.  307 

not  to  advanct.  Caes.  CrSdulI  esse  coeperunt,  they  began  to  be  credulous. 
Cic.  Vincere  sds,  you  know  how  to  conquer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liv. 
Vlctfiria  utl  nescis,  you  do  not  know  how  to  use  victory,  Liv.  Latlne  loqu! 
didicerat,  he  had  learned  to  speak  Latin.  Sail.  D6bes  hoc  rescribere,  you 
ought  to  write  this  in  reply.  Hor.  Nemo  mortem  effugere  potest,  no  one  is 
able  to  escape  death.  Cic.  Solent  cogitare,  they  are  accustomed  to  think.  Cic. 

I.  The  Infinitive  is  thus  used — 

1.  With  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  meaning  to  dare,  desire,  determine ;  to  begin, 
continue,  end  ;  to  know,  learn  ;  to  owe,  etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTB  1.— For  the  Subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  498,  I.,  note. 
NOTE  2.— See  also  498,  II.,  cote  1. 

2.  With  INTRANSITIVE  VEBBS  meaning  to  be  able  ,•  to  be  wont,  be  accustomed, 
etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

II.  In  special  constructions  the  Infinitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  * 
DATIVE  OF  PURPOSE  OR  END — ' 

1.  With  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS: 

NOn  populare  penates  venimus,  we  have  not  come  to  lay  waste  your  hornet. 
Verg.  Conjuravere  patriam  incendere,  they  conspired  to  destroy  their  country 
withfire.  Sail. 

2.  With  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  In  connection  with  the  Accusative  : 

Pecus  egit  altos  vlsere  months,  he  drove  his  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Hor.  Quid  babes  dicere,  what  have  you  to  say  t  Cic.  Dederat  comam 
diffundere  ventls,  she  had  given  her  hair  to  ih«  winds  to  scatter.  Verg.8 

3.  With  ADJECTIVES  : 

Est  paratus  audlre,  he  is  prepared  to  hear  (for  hearing).  Cic.  Arid!  com- 
mittere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  (for  engaging)  in  battle.  Ovid.  Fons  rtvc 
dare  nftmen  idOneus,  a  fountain  fit  to  give  a  name  to  the  river.  Hor. 

NOTK  1.— This  use  of  the  Infinitive  is  mostly  poetical. 

NOTE  2. — With  adjectives  and  with  participles  used  as  adjectives  the  Infinitive  i» 
rare  iti  prose,  but  Is  freely  used  in  poetry  in  a  variety  of  constructions  : 

Cantare  peritus,  skilled  in  singing.  Verg.  Pglldes  ccdere  nescins,  J'elMfs  not 
knowing  hoic  to  yield.  Hor.  Certa  morf,  determined  to  die.  Verg.  DIgnus  describl, 
worthy  to  be  described.  Hor.  Vitulus  nlveus  viderl,8  a  culf  snoic-white  to  view.  Hor. 

bles  that  of  adverbs  from  the  oblique  cases  of  nouns.  As  such  adverbs  are  often  used 
with  greater  freedom  than  the  cases  which  they  represent,  so  the  Latin  Infinitive  ofton 
appears  in  connections  where,  as  a  Dative,  it  would  not  have  been  at  all  admissible. 
Upon  the  Origin  and  History  of  the  Indo-European  Infinitive,  see  Jolly, '  Qeschichte 
del  Tnfinitivs: 

>  In  these  constructions  the  Infinitive  retains  Its  original  force  and  use;  see  532, 
foot-not*. 

»  In  these  examples  with  transitive  verbs  observe  that  the  Accusatire  and  Iii/tn4- 
tive  correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  Dative  under  384,  II.,  and  that  the  Accusative 
Dative,  and  Infinitive  correspond  to  the  Accusati»e  and  two  Datives  under  39O,  IL 

•  Jffotut  vidcrl,  like  the  Greek  Acvxbt  i2e'o-0ai. 


308  INFINITIVE. 

Piger  scribendl  ferre  laborem,  reluctant  to  bear  the  labor  of  writing.  Hor.  Snum  of 
ficium  facere  immemor  est,  he  forgets  (is  forgetful)  to  do  his  duty.  Plant. 

NOTE  3. — The  Infinitive  also  occurs,  especially  in  poetry,  with  verbal  nouns  and  witt 
such  expressions  as  tempus  est,  cdpia  est,  etc. : 

Cupidd  Stygios  innare  lacus,  a  desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes.  Verg.  Qui 
bus  molliter  vivere  copia  erat,  who  had  the  means  for  living  at  ease.  Sail.  Tempus  esi 
dicere,  it  is  time  to  speak.  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  prepositions: 

Multurn  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  gtvinQ 
and  receiving.  Sen. 

RULE  L VII.— Accusative  and  Infinitive. 

534.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative 
and  an  Infinitive : 

T6  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic.  Eos  suum  adventuin 
exspectare  jussit,  he  ordered  them  to  await  his  approach.  Caes.  Pontem 
jubet  rescindl,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down.  Caes.  Te  tua  friri 
virtute  cupiraus,  we  wish  you  to  enjoy  your  virtue.  Cic.  Sentimus  calere 
Tgnem,  we  perceive  thatjire  is  hot  (we  perceive  fire  to  be  hot).  Cic.  Regem 
tradunt  se  abdidisse,  they  relate  that  the  king  concealed  himself}  Liv. 

NOTE. — In  the  compound  forms  or  the  Infinitive,  esse  is  often  omitted,  especially  in 
the  future : 

AudlvT  solitum  Fabricium,  I  have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic.  Spcramus 
vobls  profuturos,  we  hope  to  benefit  you.  Cic. 

1.  The  corresponding  PASSIVE  is  sometimes  personal  and  sometimes 
impersonal : 2 

PEBSONAL. — Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur,  Aristides  is  said  (is  re- 
ported by  tradition)  to  have  been  most  just.  Cic.  Solem  5  mundo  tollere  vi- 
dentur,  they  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  the  world.  Cic.  PlatSnem  audlvissc 
dlcitur,  he  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato.  Cic.  Dil  beatl  esse  intelleguntur,  the 
gods  are  understood  to  be  happy.  Cic. 

IMPERSONAL.—  Traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  it  has  been  reported 

1  Observe  that  in  the  first  three  examples  the  Accusatives  te,  ec>x,  and  pontem,  arc 
the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  while  in  the  other  examples  the  Accusatives  te,  tg- 
nem.  and  regem,  may  be  explained  either  as  the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  or  as 
the  subjects  of  the  Infinitives.  The  former  was  doubtless  the  original  construction,  but 
n  time  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  caine  to  be  regarded  in  many  cases  as  the  subject 
of  the  Infinitive.  Thus  was  developed  the  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive. 

8  These  two  constructions  correspond  to  the  two  interpretations  of  the  Active  men- 
tioned in  foot-note  1  above.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  Ar Ml dem  jiifitissimum  fuisse  tra- 
il unt,  if  Arixt'idem  is  regarded  as  the  object  of  tradunt,  according  to  the  original  concep- 
tion, the  corresponding  Passive  will  be  personal :  Aristldes  jitstisnimun  fuisse,  trddititr; 
but  if  Aristldem  is  regarded  as  the  subject  offuisse,  and  the  clause  Aristldem  jilstissi- 
mum  fuisse  as  the  object  of  tradunt,  then  the  same  clause  will  become  the  subject  of  th« 
Passive,  and  the  construction  will  be  impersonal:  Aristldem  judtissimumfuiMe  trddi- 
tur, '  it  ts  reported  by  tradition  that  Aristides  was  most  just.' 


INFINITIVE.  309 

t>y  tradition  that  Honur  wot  blind.  Cic.  Unam  partem  Gal]  6s  obtinere  dies 
turn  est,  it  has  been  stated  that  the  Gauls  occupy  one  part.  Caes.  Nuntiatur 
ease  naves  in  portu,  it  is  announced  that  the  vessels  are  in  port.  Cic. 

NOTB  1.— The  Personal  Construction  is  used— (1)  regularly  in  jubeor,  netor,  and 
videor;  (2;  generally  in  the  simple  tenses  •  of  most  verbs  of  SAYING,  THINKIKO,  and  the 
like,  as  dicor,  trddor, /eror,  nuntior,  credor,  existimor,  putor,  per/iibeor,ote.;  (8) 
sometimes  in  other  verbs ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  2.— The  Impersonal  Construction  is  especially  common  in  the  compound 
tenses,1  though  also  used  in  the  simple  tenses  ;  see  examples  above. 

535.  The  ACCUSATIVE  AND  AN  INFINITIVE  are  used  with  a  great 
variety  of  verbs.  Thus— 

I.  With  verbs  of  PERCEIVING  and  DECLARING  : 

Sentimus  calere  Ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  MibI  narravit  te 
sollicitum  esse,  he  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.  Scrfpserunt  Themis- 
toclem  in  Asiam  transisse,  they  wrott  that  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to 
Asia.  Nep. 

1.  VERBS  OF  PERCEIVING  include  those  which  involve  (1)  the  exercise  of 
the  senses :  audio,  video,  sentio,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise  of  the  mind — THINK- 
ING, BELIEVING,  KNOWING  :  cdgito,  put6,  existimO,  credo,  spero — intellegd,  sci6,  etc. 

2.  VERBS  OF  DECLARING  are  such  as  state  or  communicate  facts  or  thoughts : 
died,  ndrrO,  n  untio,  doceO,  ostendo,  promitto,  etc. 

3.  Expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  of  declaring,  as  fdma 
fert,  'report  says,'  testis  sum,  '  I  am  a  witness '='  I  testify,'  conscius  mihi 
sum, '  I  am  conscious,'  '  I  know,'  also  admit  an  Accusative  with  an  Infinitive  : 

Nullam  mihf  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis,  you  are  a  witness  (can 
testify)  that  no  grateful  return  has  been  made  to  me.  Cio. 

4.  PARTICIPLE  FOR  INFINITIVE. — Verbs  of  perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  present  participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
•een,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a  given  action : 

Catonem  vldl  in  bibliotheca  sedentem,  /  saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  Horary 
Cic. 

5.  SCBJECTS  COMPARED. — When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate  are 
compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  u«ed  in  the  first  clause, 
the  Infinitive  may  be  understood  in  the  second  : 

PlatOnem  ferunt  idem  scnsisse  quod  Py thagoram,  they  say  that  Plato  held 
the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras.  Cic. 

6.  PREDICATES  COMPARED. — When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first 
clause,  the  Accusative  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Num  putatis,  dlxisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  factflrum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  lie  would  have  acted?  Cic. 
NOTK.— But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

1  The  learner  will  remember  that  the  simple  tenses  are  formed  simply  by  inflexional 
endings,  as  dicitur,  dicebdtur,  but  that  the  compound  tenses  are  formed  by  th«  union 
of  the  perfect  participle  with  the  verb  sum,  as  dictum  est,  dictum  erat.  etc. 


310  INFINITIVE. 

Aiuleo  dicerc  ipaOi  potius  cultores  agrOrum  fore  qnam  ut  cott  prohibeant,  I  dart  «oj 
that  they  will  themselvet  become  tillers  of  the  field*  rather  than  prevent  th*m  from 
being  tilled.  Liv. 

II.  With  verbs  of  WISHING,   DESIRING,   COMMANDING,  and  their  op- 
posites :  * 

Te  tui  frul  virtute  cupimus,  we  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  virtue. 
Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescindl,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down  (that  the 
bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necart  vetuit,  the  law  for- 
bade that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Liv. 

NOTE.— Several  verbs  involving  a  wish  or  command  admit  the  Subjunctive  when  • 
new  subject  is  introduced,  generally  with  ut  or  ne  ;  see  498, 1 : 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  /  desire  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  Volo  ut  respondents,  J 
icish  you  would  reply.  Cic.  Malo  te  hostis  metuat,  I  prefer  that  the  enemy  should 
fear  you.  Cic.  Concede  ut  haec  apta  sint,  I  admit  that  these  things  are  tuitaUe.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  EMOTION  and  FEELING  : 2 

GaudeO  t6  mihl  suadgre,  /  rejoice  that  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Mlramur  te 
laetari,  we  wonder  that  you  rejoice.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Verbs  of  emotion  and  feeling  often  take  clauses  with  quod  (54O,  IV.)  to 
give  prominence  to  the/aci  stated,  or  to  emphasize  the  ground  or  reason  for  the  feeling : 

Gauded  quod  to  interpellavi,  I  rejoice  that  (or  because)  /  have  interrupted  you.  Cic. 
Dolebam  quod  socium  amiseram,  /was  grieving  because  I  had  lost  a  companion.  Cic. 

IV.  Sometimes,  especially  in  POETRY  and  in  LATE  PROSE,  with  verbs 
which  usually  take  the  Subjunctive :  * 

Gentem  hortor  amare  focos,  I  exhort  the  race  to  love  their  homes.  Verg. 
Cunctl  suase runt  Italiain  petere,  all  advised  to  seek  Italy.  Verg.  Soror  monet 
succedere  Lauso  Turnum,  the  sister  wabtu  Turnus  to  take  the  place  of  Lausus. 
Verg. 

RULE  L, VIII.    Subject  of  Infinitive. 

536.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as 
its  subject :  * 

Sentlmus  calSre  Tgnem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Platonem 
Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic. 

1  As  cwpio,  opto,  volo,  ndio,  mdlo,  etc.;  patior,  sino;  impero,  jubeo ;  prohibeo, 
veto,  etc. 

4  As  gaudeo,  doled,  mlror,  queror,  etc. ;  also  aegrefero,  graviter  ferO,  etc. 

3  Many  verbs  in  Latin  thus  admit  two  or  more  different  constructions ;  see  In  the 
dictionary  adigO,  censeo,  concedo,  cogo.  constitud,  contends,  cupio,  euro,  decernft, 
dlco,  doceO,  ilaboro,  enitor,facio,  impedio,  impero,  jubeO,  labors,  mdlo,  mando,  mo- 
Uor,  moneo,  nolo,  opto,  oro,  patior,  permitto,  persuaded,  postulo,  praecipio,  prae- 
dlco,  prohibeo,  sino,  ttatuo,  studeo,  suddeO,  veto,  video.  See  also  Draeger,  II.,  pp. 
230-416. 

«  Remember  that  the  Infinitive,  as  a  verbal  noun,  originally  had  no  subject,  but  that 
subsequently  in  special  constructions  a  subject  Accusative  was  developed  out  of  the  ob- 
ject of  the  principal  verb;  see  534,  foot-note  1.  In  classical  Latin  many  Infinitives  hav« 
no  subjects,  either  expressed  or  understood. 


INFINITIVE.  311 

1.  HISTORICAL  INFINITIVE. — In  lively  descriptions  the  Present  Infinitwt  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  Imperfect  or  the  Perfect  Indicative.    It  is  then  called 
the  Historical  Infinitive,  and,  like  a  finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : 

Catillna  in  prlma  acie  versarl,  omnia  providere,  multum  ipse  pugnare, 
saepe  hostem  ferlre,  Catiline  was  busy  in  the  front  line;  he  attended  to  every- 
thing, fought  much  in  person,  and  often  smote  down  the  enemy.1  Sail. 

NOTE. — The  Historical  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  customary  or  repeated  action: 
Omnia  In  pGjus  mere  ac  retro  refem,  all  things  change  rapidly  for  the  worse  and 
are  borne  backward.  Verg. 

2.  A  PREDICATE  NOUN  or  a  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  after  an  Infinitive  agrees 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  of  which  it  is  predicated,  according  to  the  general 
rule  (362).    It  is  thus — 

1)  In  the  Nominative,  when  predicated  of  the  principal  subject: 

Nol6  esse  laudator,  /  am  unwilling  to  be  a  eulogist.  Cic.  Beatus  esse  sine 
virtute  nem&  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without  virtue.  Cic.  Parens  dlcl 
potest,  he  can  be  called  a  parent.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Participles  In  the  compound  tenses  agree  like  predicate  adjectives  : 

Polllcitus  esse  dicltur,  A«  is  said  to  have  promised.  Cic. 

2)  In  the  Accusative,  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Accusa- 
tive: 

Ego  me  Phldiam  esse  mallem,  I  should  prefer  to  be  Phidias.   Cic.     Tradi- 

tum  est,  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,3  it  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  that 

Homer  was  blind.   Cic. 

8)  In  the  Dative,  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative : 
Patrici&  tribflnO  plebis  fieri  non  licebat,  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  patrician 

to  be  made  tribune  of  the  people.  Cic.     Mihl  neglegenti  esse  n6n  licuit,3  it  was 

not  permitted  me  to  be  negligent.   Cic. 

NOTE. — A  noun  or  adjective  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative  is  some- 
times put  in  the  Accusative : 

fii  consulem  fieri  licet,  it  is  lawful/or  him  to  be  made  consul.  Caes. 

537.  The  TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE — Present,  Perfect,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent  the 
time  respectively  as  present,  past,  or  future,  relatively  to  that  of 
the  principal  verb : 

PRESENT. — Cupift  me  esse  clementein,  I  desire  to  be  mild.  Cic.  Maluit  so 
quam  metul,  he  preferred  to  be  loved  rather  than  feared.  Nep. 

PERFECT. — Platonem  ferunt  in  Italian)  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came 
into  Italy.  Cic.  Conscius  mihl  eram,  nihil  a  mg  commissum  esse,  I  was  con- 
scious to  myself  that  no  offence  /tad  been  committed  by  me.  Cic. 

FUTURE. — Bruturn  visum  Iri  a  me  put6,  /  think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me. 

1  Historical  Infinitives  are  generally  used  In  groups,  seldom  singly. 
3  Here  Phldiam  is  predicated  of  mi  (lit.,  me  to  be  Phidias),  and  citecum  of  Ho 
mfrum. 

'   Tribuno  Is  predicated  of  ]>atrictf>,  and  ntglegmtl  otmihi. 


312  INFINITIVE. 

Cic.    OraouTum  datum  erat  vlctrtces  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given, 
that  Athens  would  be  •victorious.   Cic. 

NOTE.— In  general,  the  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as  taking  place  at  th« 
time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb,  the  Perfect  as  then  completed  or  past,  and  the  Fu- 
ture as  then  about  to  take  place;  but  tense  is  so  imperfectly  developed  in  the  Infinitive 
that  even  relative  time  is  not  marked  with  much  exactness.  Hence— 

1)  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  future  actions,  and  sometimes  with  little  or  no 
reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dare  dtxit,  he  said  that  he  would  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter. 

2)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  present  actions,  though  chiefly  in  the  poets: 
Tetigisse  timent  poetam,  they  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet.  Hor. 

1.  After  the  past  tenses  of  debed,  oportet,  possum,  and  the  like,  the  PRES- 
ENT IifFtNmvK  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Perfect ; 
sometimes  also  after  memini,  and  the  like ;  regularly  in  recalling  what  we 
have  ourselves  experienced : 

Debuit  officiosior  esse,  he  ought  to  have  been  more  attentive.  Cio.  Id  potuit 
facere,  he  might  have  done  this.  Cic.  Me  Athenls  audire  memini,  I  remember 
to  have  heard  (hearing)  in  Athens.  Cic. 

2.  The  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  the  result  of  the  ac- 
tion.   Thus,  doctu9  esse  may  mean  either  to  "have  been  instructed  or  to  be  a 
learned  man  (lit.,  an  instructed  man).     If  the  result  thus  denoted  belongs  to 
past  time,/«we  must  take  the  place  of  esse  : 

Populuin  alloquitur,  sOpitum  fuisse  regem  ictu,  she  addresses  the  people, 
saying  that  the  king  was  stunned  by  the  blow.  Liv.  See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

3.  Instead  of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  PERIPHRASTIC  FOBM,  futu- 
rum  esse  ut,  or  fore  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Imperfect,  is  fre- 
quently used : 

Spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobls,  I  "hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope  it 
will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  speraverat  Hanni- 
bal, fore  ut  ad  s8  deficerent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  tJiat  they  would  revolt 
to  him.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — This  circumlocution  Is  common  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  participle  in  rus. 

NOTE  2.— Sometimes  fore  ut  with  the  Subjunctive,  Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with 
the  force  of  a  Future  Perfect ;  and  in  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  fore  with  the  perfect 
participle  may  be  used  with  the  same  force: 

DIco  mS  satis  adeptum  fore,  I  say  that  I  shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

538.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  is  often  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb  r1 

WITH  SUBJECT. — Caesart  nuntiatum  est  equit6s  accedere,  it  was  announced 
to  Caesar  that  the  cavalry  was  approaching.  Caes.  Facinus  est  vinclrt  clvem 
Romanum,  that  a  Roman  citizen  should  be  bound  is  a  crime.  Cic.  Certum 

1  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  subject  was  readily  developed  out  of  its  use  as  object; 
see  534, 1,  foot-note.  Thus  the  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  finally  came  to  be 
regarded  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  and  was  accordingly  used  not  only  as  subject  and 
object,  but  also  as  predicate  and  appoailive  (539,  I.  and  II.),  and  sometimes  even  in 
the  Ablative  Ali*f>htte  (539,  IV.),  and  in  dependence  upon  prepositions  (533, 8,  note  4). 


INFINITIVE.  313 

9st  liberOs  amarl,  it  is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.    Legem  brevem 
esse  oportet,  it  is  necessary  that  a  law  be  brief.   Sen. 

WITHOUT  SUBJECT. — Decretum  est  non  dare  slgnum,  it  was  decided  not  to 
give  the  signal.  Liv.  Ars  est  difficilis  rem  publicam  regere,  to  rule  a  state  is 
a  difficult  art.  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est,  it  is  pleasant  to  be  held  dear. 
Cic.  Haec  sclre  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen.  Peccarc 
licet  neminl,  to  sin  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  predicate  is  either  (1)  a  noun  or 
adjective  with  sum,  or  (2)  a  verb  used  impersonally ;  see  the  examples  above. 

2.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  may  be  the  subject  of  another 
Infinitive : 

Intellegi  necesse  est  esse  deos,1  it  must  be  understood  that  there  are  gods. 
Cic. 

3.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a  demonstrative  as  an  attributive  in 
agreement  with  it : 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  philosopharl,  this  philosophizing  (this  to  philos- 
ophize) displeases  some  persons.  Cic.  Vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobls,  to  live 
is  itself  ignoble  for  us.  Cic. 

539.  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS.— The  Infinitive  with  a  subject 2 
is  sometimes  used — 

I.  As  a  PREDICATE  ;  see  362  : 

Exitus  fuit  OratiOnis  sib!  nullam  cum  his  amlcitiam  esse,5  the  close  of  his 
oration  was  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these,  Caes. 

NOTE. — An  Infinitive  without  a  subject  may  be  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative: 
Vivere  est  cogitare,  to  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

II.  As  an  APPOSITIVE  ;  see  363 : 

Oraculum  datum  erat  vlctrices  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given, 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.  Cic.  Illud  soleo  mlrarl,  non  m6  accipere 
tuas  litteras,8  /  am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this,  that  I  do  not  receive  your 
letter.  Cio. 

III.  In  EXCLAMATIONS;  see  381  : 

Te  s!c  vexart,  that  you  should-  be  thus  troubled/  Cic.  MCne  incepto  de- 
slstere  vlctam,  that  7,  vanquished,  should  abandon  my  undertaking  t  *  Verg. 

IV.  In  the  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE;  see  431,  note  1 : 

Audlto  Darlum  movisse  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn 
(that  Darius  had  withdrawn  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt. 

1  Ense  dew  Is  the  subject  of  intelleffl,  and  intellegl  e,**e  dei'm  of  tut. 

*  Including  the  modifiers  of  each.  Thus  in  the  example  the  whole  clause,  sibl  nfil- 
fam  cum  hie  amlcitiam  esse,  is  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative  in  agreement  with  the 
subject  eecitus ;  see  302. 

'  In  the  examples,  the  clause  rlctrfcen  Athendsfore  Is  in  apposition  with  onlculum, 
and  the  clause  nfm  mf  accipere  tui'is  lltterfia,  in  apposition  with  illud. 

4  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  It  will  be  observed,  to  the  use  of  the  Accasatlr* 
•nd  Nominative  in  exclamations  (381,  with  note  8). 


314  GERUNDS. 

II.  SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

540.  In  Latin,  clauses  which  are  used  as  substantives  take  one  of 
four  forms.     They  may  be — 

I.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS: 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  it  is  asked  why  they  disagree.   Cic.     Quid  agen- 
dum sit,  nesci6, 1  do  not  know  what  ought  to  be  done.   Cic. 
NOTE. — For  the  use  of  Indirect  Questions,  see  5139, 1. 

II.  INFINITIVE  CLAUSES  : 

i 

Antecellere  contigit,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened). 
Cic.     Magna  negotia  voluit  agere,  he  wished  to  achieve  great  undertakings.  Cic. 
NOTB.— For  the  use  of  Infinitive  Clauses,  see  534 ;  535. 

III.  SUBJUNCTIVE  CLAUSES,  generally  introduced  by  ut,  ne,  etc. : 
Contigit  ut  patriam  vindicaret,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  country, 

Nep.    Vol6  ut  mih!  respondeas,  I  wish  you  would  answer  me.   Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  use  of  such  Subjunctive  Clauses,  see  498;  499,  8;  501. 

IV.  CLAUSES  INTRODUCED  BY  quod: 

Beneficium  est  quod  necesse  eat  mori,  it  is  a  blessing  that  it  is  necessary  to 
die.  Sen.  GaudeO  quod  te  interpellavl,  /  rejoice  that  (because)  I  have  inter- 
rupted you.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Quod-clauses,  used  substantively,  either  give  prominence  to  the/ac<  stated, 
or  present  it  as  a  ground  or  reaxon.  They  may  be  used  as  the  subjects  of  impersonal 
verbs,  as  the  objects  of  transitive  verbs,  especially  of  such  as  denote  emotion  or  feelwiQ, 
end  as  appositvces : 1 

Hue  accedebat  quod  exercitum  luzuridse  habnerat,  to  this  was  added  the  fact  that 
he  had  kept  the  army  in  lua-ury.  Sail.  Adde  quod  ingenu&s  didicisse  artes  emoliit 
mores,  odd  the  fact  that  to  learn  liberal  arta  refines  manner*.  Ovid.  Bene  facis  quod 
me  adjuvas,  you  do  well  that  you,  assist  me.  Cic.  Dolebam  quod  socium  amlseram,  7 
was  grieving  because  I  had  lost  a  companion.  Cic.  See  also  535,  III.,  note. 

SECTION    VIII. 

GERUNDS,  GERUNDIVES,"  SUPINES,   AND   PARTICIPLES. 

I.  GERUNDS. 

541.  The  GERUND  is  a  verbal  noun  which  shares  so  largely  the 
character  of  a  verb  that  it  governs  oblique  cases,  and  takes  ad- 
verbial modifiers : 


1  Quod-clauses  occur— (1)  as  the  subject  of  acoedit,  accidit,  appdret,  ei:enit.  Jit, 
nocet,  obest,  occurrit.  pr<>dest,  etc. ;  also  of  est  with  a  noun  or  adjective,  as  causa  est, 
titium  est,  etc.,  griitum  est,  ind'ignum  est,  mlruni  est,  etc.;  and  (2)  as  dependent  upon 
aecftso,  adilo,  adiced  (p.  20,  foot-note  1),  admlror,  antmadverto,  angor.  bene  facto, 
detector,  doled,  eseci~it<>,facid,  gaudet\  glorior,  laetor,  mlror,  mitto,  omitto,  praeterefi, 
queror,  etc.  They  are  sometimes  used  lik«  the  Accusative  of  Specification.  See  618, 
I,  note. 
"•  *  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  were  oricinally  identical.  The  former  i«  the  nei* 


GERUNDS.  315 

Jfl»  vocandl '  senatum,  the  right  of  ewmrruming  the  senate.  Liv.  Beats 
Vivendi '  cupiditas,  the  desire  of  living  happily.  Cic. 

NOTE. — In  a  few  instances  the  Gerund  has  apparently  a  passive  meaning: 
Neque  habent  propriam  percipiendl  notam,  nor  have  they  any  proper  mark  of  di«- 
tinction  (i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them).  Cic. 

542.  The  GERUND  has  four  cases — the  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Ablative — used  in  general  like  the  same  cases  of  nouns. 
Thus— 

I.  The  GENITIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  with  nouns  and  adjectives :  * 

Are  Vivendi,  the  art  of  living.  Cic.  StudiOsus  erat  audiendi,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  hearing.  Nep.  Cupidus  te  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Cio. 
Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandl,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from 
false.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Gerund  usually  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb,  but  sometimes,  by 
virtue  of  its  substantive  nature,  it  governs  the  Genitive,  especially  the  Genitive  of  per- 
sonal pronouns— mel,  nostrl,  twi,  vestri,  sul : 

Copia  placand!  tui  (of  a  woman),  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you.  Ov.  Sul  con- 
servandi  causa,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  themselves.  Cic.  Vestri  adhortandi 
causa,  for  the  purpose  of  exhorting  you.  Liv.  RSiciendi '  jiidicum  potestas,  the  power 
of  challenging  (of)  the  judges.  Cic.  Lucis  tuendl  copia,  the  privilege  of  beholding  the 
light.  Plaut. 

NOTB  2.— The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  Is  sometimes  used  to  denote  purpose  or  ten- 
dency: 

Leg€s  pellendi  darts  vlrfis,  laws  for  (lit.,  of)  driving  away  illustrious  men.  Tac. 

II.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  with  a  few  verbs  and  adjectives 
which  regularly  govern  the  Dative : 

Cum  Bolvendo  n6n  essent,  since  they  were  not  able  to  pay.  Cic.  Aqua 
Qtilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plin. 

Now.— The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  Is  rare;  *  with  an  object  it  occurs  only  in  Plautus. 

III.  The  ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  after  a  few  prepositions : & 
Ad  discendum  propensl  sumus,  we  are  inclined  to  learn  (to  learning).   Cic. 

Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

ter  of  a  participle  used  substantively,  while  the  latter  is  that  same  participle  used  adjec- 
tirrly.  Moreover,  from  this  participle  the  Gerund  developed  an  active  meaning  and  the 
Gerundive  &  passive.  On  the  Origin  and  Use  of  Gerund*  and  Qemindires,  see  Jolly, 
Geschichte  des  Inflnitivs,'  pp.  198-200-  Draeger,  II.,  pp.  789-828. 

1  Vocandl  as  a  Genitive  Is  governed  byji'io,  and  yet  it  governs  the  Accusative  Ktvii- 
lum ;  Vivendi  is  governed  by  cupiditas,  and  yet  it  takes  the  adverbial  modifier  fiet'itf. 

3  The  adjectives  which  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  are  chiefly  those  denoting 
DESIRE,  KNOWLEDGE,  SKILL,  RKCOLi.KCTiO!«,  and  their  oppositcs -.  ovidus,  cupidim,  ttu- 
diotut;  cfrnsciim,  gndrus,  ignarus;  perltus,  imperitus,  inmetus,  etc. 

1  Pronounced  as  if  written  rejiciendl ;  see  p.  20,  foot-note  1. 

*  According  to  Jolly,  'Geschlchte  des  Infinltivs.1  p.  200,  the  Gerund  originally  had 
only  one  case,  the  Dative,  and  was  virtually  an  Infinitive. 

*  Most  frequently  after  ad ;  sometimes  after  inter  and  oh ;  very  rarely  after  ante, 
eircii,  and  in. 


316  GERUNDIVES. 

NOTE  1. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  with  ft  direct  object  is  rare: 
Ad  placandum  deos  pertinet,  it  tends  to  appease  the  gods.  Cic. 
NOTE  2.— The  Gerund  with  ad  often  denotes  purpose: 

Ad  imitandum  mihl  proposition  est  exemplar  illud,  that  model  has  been  set  before 
me  for  imitation.  Cic. 

IV.  The  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  (1)  as  Ablative  of  Means, 
and  (2)  with  prepositions : ' 

Mens  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  learning.  Cic.  Salutern 
hominibus  dando,  by  giving  safety  to  men.  Cic.  Virtutes  cernuntur  in 
agendo,  virtues  are  seen  in  action.  Cic.  Deterrere  a  scrlbendo,  to  deter  from 
writing.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — After  prepositions,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare  : 

In  tribuendo'  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  own.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— Without  a  preposition,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  denotes  in  a  few  in- 
stances some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  lime,  separation,  etc. : 

1  ucipiendo  refugi,  /  drew  back  in  the  very  beginning.  Cic. 

II.  GERUNDIVES. 

543.  The  GERUNDIVE,  like  other  participles,  agrees  with  nouns 
and  pronouns : 

Inita  sunt  cOnsilia  urbis  delendae,  plans  have  been  formed  for  destroying  the 
city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Numa  sacerdotibus  creandis  animuni 
adjecit,  Numa  gave  his  attention  to  the  appointment  oj  priests.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  noun  (or  pronoun)  and  a  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it  form  the  Ge- 
rundive Construction. 

544.  The  GERUNDIVE  CONSTRUCTION  may  be  used — 

1.  In  place  of  a  Gerund  with  a  direct  object.     It  then  takes  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  whose  place  it  supplies : 

Libid6  ejus  videndl  ( =  libido  eum  videndl),  the  desire  of  seeing  him  (lit. , 
of  Mm  to  be  seen).  Cic.  Platonis  audiendi  (=  Platonem  audiendl)  studiosus, 
fond  of  hearing  Plato.  Cic.  Legendls  Oratoribus  (=legendo  oratores),  bji 
reading  the  orators.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  Gerundive  Construction  should  not  be  used  for  the  Gerund  with  a  neu' 
ter  pronoun  or  adjective  as  object,  as  it  could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artera  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandl,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from  faint 
Cic. 

2.  In  the  Dative  and  in  the  Ablative  vrith  a  preposition  : 

Locum  oppido  condendo  ceperunt,  they  selected  a  place  for  founding  a  city 
Liv.  Tempora  demetendis  fructibus  accommodata,  seasons  suitable  for  gath 
ering  fruits.  Cic.  Brutus  in  liberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Brutus  wasslai* 
in  liberating  his  country.  Cic. 

1  Th«  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  most  frequently  after  a  (»b),  de,  eas  (6),  in; 
rarely  after  cum,  pro,  and  super. 


SUPINES.  317 

NOTE  1. — The  learner  will  remember  that  in  the  Dative  (543,  II.,  note)  and  in  the 
Ablative  with  a  preposition  (543,  IV.,  note  1)  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare.  The  Gerundvve  Construction  supplies  its  place. 

NOTE  2. — The  Gerundive  Construction  sometimes  denotes  purpose  or  tendency,  es- 
pecially in  the  Accusative  after  verbs  of  girting,  permitting,  talcing,  etc. : 

Attribuit  Italiam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastandum)  Catilinae,  he  assigned  Italy  to  Cat- 
iline to  ravage  (to  be  ravaged).  Cic.  Firmandae  valGtudinl  in  Campaniam  concessit, 
fie  withdrew  into  Campania  to  confirm  his  health.  Tac.  Haec  tradendae  Hannibal! 
victoriae  snnt,  these  things  are  for  the  purpose  of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal.  Liv. 
ProficTscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis,  he  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  studying  antiq- 
uity. Tac. 

NOTE  3. — The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Dative  occurs  after  certain  official 
names,  as  decemviri,  triumviri,  comitia : l 

Decemviros  legibus  scribendis  creavimus,  we  have  appointed  a  committee  of  ten  to 
prepare  lairs.  Liv. 

NOTE  4.— The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Ablative  occurs  after  comparatives : 

Nullum  officiatn  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est,  no  duty  is  more  necessary 
than  that  of  returning  a  favor.  Cic. 

NOTE  5.— The  Gerundive  Construction  is  in  general  admissible  only  in  transitive 
verbs,  but  it  occurs  in  fitor,fruor,fungor,  potior,  etc.,  originally  transitive : 

Ad  munus  fungendum,  for  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spes  potiundorum  castro- 
rum,  tlit  hope  of  getting  possession  of  t?w  camp.  Caes. 

III.  SUPINES. 

545.  The  SUPINE,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a  verbal  noun.     It  has  a 
form  in  um  and  a  form  in  u. 

NOTE  1. — The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative;  that  in  u  is  generally  an  Ablative, 
though  sometimes  perhaps  a  Dative.3 

NOTB  2. — The  Supine  in  um  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb : 

LSg&toi  mittunt  rogatum  auxilium,  they  send  ambassadors  to  ask  aid.  Caes. 

RULE  LIX.    Supine  in  Um. 

546.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion 
to  express  PURPOSE  : 

LSgfttl  vSngrunt  re's  repetltum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution.  Liv. 
Ad  Caesarem  congrfttulatum  convcngrunt,  they  came  to  Caesar  to  congrat- 
ulate him.  Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  •  few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly  ex- 
press motion  : 

Flliam  Agrippae  nuptum  dedit,  he  gave  hit  daughter  in  marriage  to  Agrippa. 
Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  /erb  eo  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Periphras- 
tic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  literally  : 

Bonos  ornnr-s  perditum  cunt,  they  are  going  to  destroy  all  the  good.  Sail. 

1  But  in  most  instances  the  Dative  may  be  explained  as  dependent  either  npon  tho 
verb  or  upon  the  predicate  as  a  whole;  see  384,  4. 

*  See  Hiibschmann,  p.  223;  Draeger,  II.,  p.  838;  Jolly,  p.  201. 


318  PARTICIPLES. 

NOT«.— But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  wm  with  the  verb  rf>  is  often  used 
for  the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  Ire  (=  ulclflel)  injurias  festlnat,  he  hastens  to  avenge  the  injuries.  Sail. 

8.  The  Supine  in  urn  with  iri,  the  Infinitive  Passive  of  eO,  forms,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered (222,  HI.,  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive: 

Brutum  visum  iri  a  me  puto,  /  think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Supine  in  um  is  not  very  common ; l  but  purpose  may  be  denoted  by  other 
constructions : 

1)  By  ut  or  gul  icith  the  Subjunctive;  see  497. 

t)  By  Gerunds  or  Gerundives;  see  542, 1.,  note  2,  and  III.,  note  2;  544,  2,  note  2. 

8)  By  Participles;  see  549,  8. 

RULE  LX.    Supine  in  u. 

547.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (424) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  audltu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  /tear  (in  hearing)  ? 
fie.  Difficile  dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  tell.  Cic.  De  genere  mortis  difficile 
dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  the  kind  of  death.  Cic.  Clvitas  incredi- 
bile  memoratu  est  quantum  creverit,  it  is  incredible  to  relate  how  much  (he 
stale  increased.  Sail.  Pudet  dictu,  it  is  a  shame  to  fell.  Tac. 

NOTE. — The  Supine  in  u  never  governs  an  oblique  case,  but  it  may  take  an  Ablative 
with  a  preposition,  as  in  the  third  example  above. 

1.  The  Supine  in  ft  is  used  chiefly  with  jucundus.  optimus:  facilis,  prdcl'rw,  dif 
fic.ili»;  incredibili*.  memor<~,bili>i ;  Fiontstus,  turpis;  d'ignus,  indlgnus;  /<7«,  nefdt, 
opus,  and  scelus ;  rarely  with  verbs. 

2.  The  Supine  in  u  is  very  rare.  The  most  common  examples  are  audltfi,  dictf/, 
factUi  natu,  visu;  less  common,  cognitii,  intelleetu,  inventu,  memoratu,  relMtu.^ 
scitu^tractatu,  vwtu.* 

IV.  PARTICIPLES. 

548.  The  PABTICIPLE  is  a  verbal  adjective  which  governs  the 
same  cases  as  the  verb  : 

Animus  s8  nOn  vidSns  alia  cernit,  the  mind,  though  it  does  not  see  itself 
(lit.,  not  seeing  itself ),  discerns  other  things.  Cic. 

NOTB  l."For  Participle*  used  substantively,  see  441. 

NOTE  2.— Participles  used  substantively  sometimes  retain  the  adverbial  modifiers 
which  belonged  to  them  as  participles,  and  sometimes  take  adjective  modifiers: 

Non  tarn  praemia  sequi  recte  factorum  quam  ipsa  recte  facta,  not  to  seek  the  rewards 
of  good  deeds  (things  rightly  done)  so  much  as  good  deeds  themselves.  Cic.  Praecla- 
rum  atqne  divinum  factum,  an  excellent  and  divine  deed.  Cic. 

549.  PARTICIPLES  are  often  used — 

1.  To  denote  TIME,  CAUSE,  MANNER,  MEANS: 

1  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  829,  the  Supine  in  um  is  found  in  only  two  hundred 
and  thirty -six  verbs,  mostly  of  the  First  and  Third  Conjugations. 

3  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  83$,  the  Supine  in  u  is  found  in  one  hundred  and  nine 
verbs. 


PARTICIPLES.  319 

Plato  scrlbcns  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing.  Cic.  Iturt  in  proe- 
lium  canunt,  they  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle.  Tac.  Sol  oriens  diem 
conficit,  the  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day.  Cic.  Mllites  renuntiant,  se  per- 
fidiam  veritos  revertisse,  the  soldiers  report  that  they  returned  because  they 
feared  perfidy  (having  feared).  Caes. 

2.  To  denote  CONDITION  or  CONCESSION  : 

Mendaci  hominl  ne  verum  quidem  dlcenti  credere  non  solgmus,  we  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a  liar,  even  if  he  speaks  the  truth.  Cic.  Reluctante  natura, 
irritus  labor  est,  if  nature  opposes,  effort  is  vain.  Sen.  Scrlpta  tua  jam  difl 
exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare,  though  I  have  been  long  expecting  your 
work,  yet  I  do  not  dare  to  ask  for  it.  Cic. 

3.  To  denote  PURPOSE  : 

Perseus  rediit,  belli  casum  tentaturus,  Perseus  returned  to  try  (about  to 
try)  the  fortune  of  war.  Liv.  Attribuit  nos  trucldandds  Cethego,  he  assigned 
un  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter.  Cic. 

4.  To  supply  the  place  of  RELATIVE  CLAUSES  : 

Omnes  aliud  agentes,  aliud  simulantes,  improbl  sunt,  all  who  do  one  thing 
and  pretend  another  are  dishonest.  Oic. 

6.  To  supply  the  place  of  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES  : 

Classem  devlctam  cepit,  he  conquered  and  took  the  fleet  (took  the  fleet  con- 
quered). Nep.  R3  cOnsentientes,  vocabulls  differfibant,  they  agreed  in  fact, 
but  differed  in  words.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— A  participle  with  a  negative  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  noun 
and  the  preposition  without  : 

Miserum  est,  nthil  proflclentcm  angl,  it  i»  sad  to  be  troubled  witfiout  accomplish- 
ing anything.  Cic.  Non  Grubescuns,  without  blushing.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — The  perfect  participle  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  or 
verbal  noun  with  of  : 

Homerus  fuit  ante  ROmam  conditam,  Homer  lived  (was)  before  the  found- 
ing of  Rome  (before  Rome  founded).  Cic. 

550.  The  TENSES  OP  THE  PARTICIPLE — Present,  Perfect,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent 
the  time  respectively  as  present,  past,  and  future  relatively  to  that 
of  the  principal  verb  : 

Oculus  s6  n6n  vidfins  alia  cernit,  the  eye,  though  it  does  not  see  itself  (not 
seeing  itself),  discerns  other  thing*.  Cic.  Plato  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato 
died  while  writing.  Cic.  Ova  maturata  dulcescit,  the  grape,  when  it  hdf 
ripened  (having  ripened),  becomes  sweet.  Cic.  Sapiens  bona  semper  placituru 
laudat,  the  wise  man  praises  blessings  which  will  always  please  (being  about  to 
please).  Sen. 

NOTB  1. — The  perfect  participle,  both  in  deponent  and  in  passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
ased  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a  great  degree  its  forc« 
ON  a  tense,  aud  is  best  rendered  by  a  verbal  noun : 


320  PARTICLES. 

Elsdem  ducibus  Cisus  Numidas  mittit,  employing  the  same  persons  at  guides,  h* 
tmt  the  Numidians.  Caes.  Incensas  perfert  naves,  he  reports  the  burning  of  tht, 
ships  (the  ships  set  on  fire).  Verg.  See  also  544. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  compound  tenses  the  perfect  participle  often  becomes  virtually  a 
predicate  adjective  expressing  the  result  of  the  action  : 

Causae  sunt  cdgnitae,  the  causes  are  knoicn.  Caes.    See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  Perfect  Participle  with  habef),  see  388, 1,  note. 

NOTE  4.— The  want  of  a  perfect  active  participle  is  sometimes  supplied  by  a  temporal 
tlause,  and  sometimes  by  a,  perfect  passive  participle  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Caesar,  postquam  venit,  Rhenum  translre  constituit,  Caesar,  having  arrived,  de- 
cided to  cross  the  Rhine.  Caes.  Equitatu  praemisso  subsequebatur,  having  sent  for- 
ward his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes.  See  also  431 ;  519. 

NOTE  6. — The  want  of  a  present  passive  participle  is  generally  supplied  by  »  tem- 
poral clause  : 

Com  a  Catone  laudabar,  reprehend!  me  a  cSteris  paticbar,  being  praised  by  Cat-o,  1 
allowed  myself  to  be  censured  by  the  others.  Cic. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
SYNTAX   OF   PARTICLES. 


RULE  LXI.    Use  of  Adverbs. 

551.  Adverbs  qualify  VEKBS,  ADJECTIVES,  and   other 
ADVERBS  : 

SapientSs  f  Sllciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  happily.  Cic.  Facile  doctissimuS, 
unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Haud  aliter,  not  otlierwise.  Verg. 

NOTE  1. — For  predicate  adverbs  with  sum,  see  360,  note  2 ;  for  adverbs  with 
nouns  used  adjectively,  see  441,  3;  for  adverbs  in  place  of  adjectives,  sec  443,  notes 
3  and  4;  for  adverbs  with  participles  used  substantively,  see  548.  note  2. 

NOTE  1. — Sic  and  ita  mean  'so,'  'thus.'  Ita  has  also  a  limiting  sense,  'in  so  far,'  as 
in  ita— si  (5O7,  8,  note  2).  Adeo  means  'to  such  a  degree  or  result';  tarn,  tantopere, 
'  so  much' — tarn  used  mostly  with  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  tantopere  with  verbs. 

552.  The  common  negative  particles  are  non,  ne,  Jmud. 

1.  Non  is  the  usual  negative ;  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions,  wishes,  and  purposes  (483, 
8;  488;  497),  and  hand,  in  haud  scid  an,  and  with  adjectives  and  adverbs  :  hand  mi- 
rabile,  not  wonderful ;  haud  aliter,  not  otherwise.     Nl  for  ne  is  rare.    N't.  non  after 
iridt  is  often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  modo  non  and  in  non  sdlum  non  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore sed  or  verum,  followed  by  ne — quidem  or  via;  (rarely  etiam),  when  the  verb  of  the 
second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first : 

AssentatiS  non  modo  amico,  sed  nS  Ilber8  quidem  digna  est,  flattery  is  not  only  not 
worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of  a  free  man.  dc. 

8.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non ;  si  minus  —  si  non.  Sin  aliter  h«J 
nearly  the  same  force  as  »i  minus.  Minimi  often  means  'not  at  all,'  'by  no  means.' 


CONJUNCTIONS.  321 

553.  Two  NEGATIVES  are  generally  equivalent  to  an  affirma- 
tive, as  in  English : 

Nihil  n6n  arroget,  let  him  claim  everything.  Hor.  Neque  hoc  ZenCi  non 
vldit,  rtor  did  Zeno  overlook  this.  Cic. 

1.  Non  before  a  general  negative  gives  It  the  force  of  an  Indefinite  affirmative,  but 
after  such  negative  the  force  of  a  general  affirmative : 

N6nnem6,  some  one ;  nonnihil,  something;  nfmniinquam,  sometimes / 

NStnO  non,  every  one ;         nihil  non,  everything;         nunquam  non,  always. 

2.  After  a  general  negative,  nf—ijuidem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and  nequt 
-^neque,  neve — neve,  and  the  like,  repeat  the  negation  distributively  : 

Non  praetereundnm  est  nO  id  quidem,  we  must  not  pass  by  even  thit.  Cic.    Nfim6 
unquam  neque  poeta  neque  orator  fuit,  no  one  wa»  ever  either  a  poet  or  an  orator.  Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  432-435. 

554.  COORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS  unite  similar   constructions 
(309,  1).     They  comprise  five  classes. 

I.  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  UNION  : 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Cic.  Senatus  populusque,  tht  stnatt 
and  people.  Cic.  Nee  erat  difficile,  nor  was  it  difficult.  Liv. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  1. 

2.  Et  simply  connects ;  que  implies  a  more  Intimate  relationship;  atque and  ac gen- 
erally give  prominence  to  what  follow*.    Neque  and  nee  have  the  force  of  et  non.    Et 
and  etiam  sometimes  mean  even. 

NOTB.—  Atque  and  dc  generally  mean  at,  than,  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  like- 
ness and  nnlikeness:  tdUsdo  'such  as';  aeque  ac, '  equally  as ';  aUter  atque,  'other- 
wise than.1  gee  also  451,  5. 

8.  Que  is  an  enclitic,  and  ac  In  the  best  prose  is  used  only  befor«  consonants. 

4.  Ktiam,  quoque,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  <>/,  atque.  Ac, 
and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.    Quoque  follows  the  word  which  it 
connects  :  it  quoque,  '  he  also.1    Etiam,  '  also,' '  further,'  '  even,'  often  adds  a  new  cir- 
cumstance. 

5.  Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used  :  et—  et,  que— que,1  et — que,  que—et,  que — 
atque,1  turn — turn,  cum— turn, '  both — and ' ;  but  cum— turn  gives  prominence  to  the  sec- 
ond word  or  clause;  nbn  solum  (non  modo,  or  n6n  tantum) — »ed  etiam  (vCmm  etiam), 
'not  only — but  also';  neque  (nee)— neque  (nee),  'neither— nor';  neque  (nee)—  et  (que), 
'  not— but  (and) ' ;  et—  neque  (n«c),  '  and  not.' 

6.  Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is  generally  expressed, 
though  sometimes  omitted,  especially  between  the  names  of  two  colleagues.    Between 
several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or  omitted  altogether,  though 
que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  others  : 
pda>  et  tranquill&ttls  et  concordia,  or  pdas,  tranquiHitdt,  concorilia,  or  pax,  tranquil- 
litas,  concordiaque. 

NOTB  1. — Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditional  clauses,  except  before  nfm.. 
NOTE  2.— A  series  may  begin  with  prlmum  or  prlmfi,  may  be  continued  by  detndt 
followed  by  turn,  posted,  praeterea,  or  some  similar  word,  and  may  close  with  dfniqiit 

1  Que — '/nt  is  rare,  except  in  poetry;  que— atque,  r»r«  even  In  poevry;  fee  Verg. 
A-eu.,  I.,  18;  Oeor.,  1.,  188. 


322  CONJUNCTIONS. 

or  posti'emn.1     Deinde  may  be  repeated  several  times  between  prlmnim  and  denique  ot 
postremd."1 

IL  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  SEPARATION  : 

Aut  vestra  aut  sua  culpa,  either  your  fault  or  Ms  own.  Liv.  Duabus  tri- 
busve  hOrls,  in  two  or  three  hours.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  31O,  2. 

2.  Aut  denotes  a  stronger  antithesis  than  vel,  and  must  be  used  if  the  one  supposition 
excludes  the  other:  aut  verum  autfalsum, '  either  true  or  false.'     Vel  implies  a  differ- 
ence in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.    It  is  generally  corrective,  and  is  often 
followed  by  potius,  etiam,  or  dloam :  lauddtur,  vel  etiam  amatur,  '  he  is  praised,  or 
even  (rather)  loved.'    It  sometimes  means  even,  and  sometimes  for  example.     Velut 
often  means/or  example.     Ve  for  vel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

NOTE. — In  negative  clauses  aut  and  ve  often  continue  the  negation  :  non  honor  aut 
virtue,  '  neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue.' 

3.  iSlve  (si — ve)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition ;  it  often  connect* 
different  names  of  the  same  object :  Pallas  sine  Minerva,  '  Pallas  or  Minerva '  (anothe* 
name  of  the  same  goddess). 

NOTE.— Disjunctive  conjunctions  are  often  combined  as  correlatives:  aut— aut,  ve>, 
— vel,  etc.,  'either— or.' 

III.  ADVERSATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  OPPOSITION  or  CONTRAST  : 

CupiO  me  esse  clementem,  Bed  me  inertiae  condemno,  7  wish  to  be  mild, 
but  I  condemn  myself  for  inaction.  Cic.  Magnes  ferrum  ad  se  trab.it,  ratio- 
nein  autem  adferre  uon  possumus,  the  magnet  attracts  iron,  but  we  can  not 
assign  a  reason.  Cic. 

1.  Fo:  list,  see  31O,  3. 

2.  Sed  and  verwn  mark  a  direct  opposition;  autem  and  verb  only  a  transition;  m 
emphasizes  the  opposition ;  atqul  often  introduces  an  objection ;  ceterum  means  '  bu% 
mill,'  -as  to  the  rest ' ;  tomm,  'yet.' 

NOTE. — Sed  and  verum  are  sometimes  resumptive ;  see  IV.,  8,  b«low : 
Sed  age,  responde.  but  some  :  ej/ii/.   Plaut. 

3.  Attamen,  Kedtamen,  vfruntamen,  'but  yet,'  are  compounds  oftamen. 

4.  Autem  and  vfro  are  postpositive,  i.  e.,  they  are  placed  after  one  or  more  w^rds 
in  their  clauses. 

IV.  ILLATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  INFERENCE  : 

In  umbra  igitur  pugnabimus,  we  shall  therefore  fight  in  the  shade.   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  31O,  4. 

2.  Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and  sometimes  with  conjunc- 
tions, are  also  illatives,  as  ef>,  idef>,  idcirefi,  propteretl,  quamobrem,  quapntpter,  qiu'irf, 
quocircd. 

8.  Igitur  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects :  hie  igitur, '  this  one  there- 
fore.' After  a  digression,  igitur,  sed,  sed  tamen,  verum,  verum  tamen,  etc.,  are  often 
used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be  rendered  '  I 
say ' :  Sed  si  quitt, '  if  any  one,  1  say.' 

1  For  examples,  see  Cic.,  Fam.,  XV.,  14;  Div.,  II.,  56. 

2  Cicero,  Inv.,  II.,  49,  has  a  series  of  ten  members  in  which  primum  introduces  the 
flrst  member,  postrfwo  the  last,  and  delude  each  of  the  other  eight. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  323 

V.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CAUSE  : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  enim  solus,  counsel  is  difficult,  for  I  am  alone. 
Cic.  Etenim  jus  amant,/or  they  love  the  right.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  31O,  5. 

2.  Etenim  and  namque  denote  a  closer  connection  than  enim  and  nam. 

3.  Enim  is  postpositive;  see  554,  III.,  4. 

555.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  subordinate  with 
principal  constructions  (309,  2).  They  comprise  eight  classes. 

I.  TEMPORAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  TIME: 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic.  Dum  ego 
in  Sicilia  sum,  while  I  am  in  Sicily.  Cic.  See  also  311, 1 ;  518-521. 

I.  Dum  added  to  a  negative  means  yet;  nondum,  'not  yet';  virdum,  '  scarcely  yet.1 

II.  COMPARATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  COMPARISON  : 

Ut  optusti,  ita  est,  it  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  Velut  si  adesset,  as  if  he  wert 
present.  Caes.  See  also  311,  2;  513,  II. 

1.  CORKELATIVES  are  often  used  :  Tain — quam,  'as,'  'so — as,1  'as  much — as';  tarn — 
quam  quod  ma&ime,  '  as  much  as  possible ( ;  nfm  minun — quam, '  not  less  than ' ;  noti 
mayis — quam,  'not  more  than.1 

Tarn — quam  and  ut — ita  with  a  superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  the  with 
the  comparative  :  ut  mdxime, — ita  mdtrimP,  'the  more— the  more.' 

III.  CONDITIONAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONDITION  : 

Si  peccavl,  Ignosce,  if  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  Nisi  est  consilium 
doml,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home.  Cic.  See  also  311,  3 ;  5O6-513. 

1.  yisi,  'if  not,1  in  negative  sentences  often  means  'except' ;  and  nisi  quod,  'except 
that,1  may  be  used  even  in  affirmative  sentences.  Ni#i  may  mean  '  than.1  Nihil  aliud  n*fi 
=  '  nothing  further '  (more,  except) ;  nihil  aliud  quam  =  '  nothing  else 1  (other  than). 

IV.  CONCESSIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONCESSION  : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic.  EtsI  nihil  habeat, 
although  he  has  nothing.  Cic.  See  also  311,  4;  514;  515. 

V.  FINAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  PURPOSE  : 

Esse  oportet,  ut  vivas,  it  is  necessary  to  eat,  that  you  may  live.  Cic.  See 
also  311,  5;  497-499. 

VI.  CONSECUTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONSEQUENCE  or  RESULT  : 
Atticus  ita  vlxit,  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  Atticus  so  lived  that 

he  was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians.    Nep.     Sec  also  311,  6 ;  5OO-5O4. 

VII.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CAUSE  : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  areso.  Cic.   See  also  311,  7 ;  516 ;  517. 

VIII.  INTERROGATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  or  Particles  denote  INQUIRY  or  QUES- 
TION: 

Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic. 
See  also  311,  8 ;  351-353  ;  52». 


324  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

556.  INTERJECTIONS  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone,  as 

'  alas  ! '  and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns;  see  381,  with 
note  3. 

557.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  imprecations, 
sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections : 

Pax  (peace),  be  still.'  miserum,  miserabUe,  sad,  lamentable/  Oro,  pray ! 
age,  agite,  come,  well!  mehercules,  by  Hercules!  per  deum  fldem,  in  tAt 
name  of  the  gods  !  sddes  =  si  audes  (for  audies),  i/ you  will  heart 


CHAPTER    VII. 
RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

558.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Rules  of  Syn- 
tax are  here  introduced  in  a  body. 

AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

I.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  CASE  (362) : 

Brutus  cffstos  llbertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty. 

II.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  CASE  with  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  it  qualifies  (363) : 

Clullius  rex  moritur,  ChiiUus  fh«  Icing  dies. 

NOMINATIVE.  — VOCATIVE. 

III.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nominative  (368) : 
Servius  rggnavit,  Servius  reigned. 

IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
Vocative  (369) : 

Pfirge,  Laell,  proceed,  Latlvue, 

ACCUSATIVE. 

V.  The  DIRECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accusative 
(111): 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  (rod  made  (built)  the  world. 

VI.  Verbs  of  MAKING,  CHOOSING,  CALLING,  REGARDING,  SHOW- 
ING, and-  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same  person  01 
thing  (3T3) : 

Hamilcarem  imperatOrem  ftcfcrunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  commander. 


RULES   OF  SYNTAX.  325 

VII.  Borne  verbs  of  ASKING,  DEMANDING,  TEACHING,  and  CON- 
CEALING admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person  and  the  other 
of  the  thing  (3T4)  : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion. 

VIII.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative  to  define 
its  application  (3T8) : 

Capita  velamur,  we  have  our  "heads  veiled. 

IX.  DUBATION  OF  TIME  and  EXTENT  OF  SPACE  are  expressed  by 
the  Accusative  (3T9) : 

Septem  et  trlginta  regnavit  ann6s,  he  reigned  thirty-seven  years.    Qumque 
milia  passunin  ambulare,  to  walk  five  miles. 

X.  The  PLACE  TO  WHICH  is  designated  by  the  Accusative  (380) : 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition —  ad  or  in : 

LegiOnes  ad  urbem  adducit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  to  or  toward  the  city. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition : 
Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  interjection,  may 
be  used  in  Exclamations  (381) : 

lieu  me  miserum, nh  me  unhappy ! 

DATIVE. 

XII.  The  INDIKECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Dative. 
It  is  used  (384)— 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs : 
Tib!  servio,  I  am  devoted  to  you. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs,  in  connection  with  the  DIRECT  OBJKCT  : 
AgrOs  plebl  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people. 

XIII.  Two  Datives — the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  and  the  OBJECT  or 
END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a  few  verbs  (390) : 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs : 

Malo  eat  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs  in  connection  with  the  ACCUSATIVE: 

Qumque  cohortes  castrts  praesidio  rellquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  camp. 

XIV.  With  adjectives,  the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  the  quality  is  di- 
rected is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  caruni  eat,  it  is  dear  to  all. 


326  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

XV.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and  adverbs 
(392): 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative : 
Justitia  est  obtemperati6  legibus,  justice  is  obedience  to  laws. 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the  Dative : 
Congruenter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature. 

GENITIVE. 

XVI.  Any  noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the  meaning  of 
another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395) : 

Catonis  orationes,  Colo's  orations. 

XVII.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing (399) : 

Avidus  luudis,  desirous  of  praise. 

XVIII.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a  different 
person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy. 

XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406)— 

I.  With  misereor  and  miserescO  : 
Miserere  labOrum,  pity  the  labors. 

II.  With  recorder,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  oblivlscor : 
Meminit  praeteritOrum,  he  remembers  the  past. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 
Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  interest  of  all. 

XX.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  PERSON  and  the  GENITIVE  of  the 
THING  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs  (409) : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding,  admonishing  : 

Te  amicitiae  eommonefacit,  he  reminds  you  of  friendship. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting: 
Viros  scelerls  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  crime. 

III.  With  miseret,  paenitet,  pudet,  taedet,  and  piget: 
Eorum  nOs  miseret,  we  pity  them. 

ABLATIVE  PROPER. 

XXI.  The  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (412): 
I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ah,  de,  or  ex : 

Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  ovtfrom  the  city. 


RULES   OP  SYNTAX. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  without  a  preposition  : 

Platonem  Athenls  arcgsslvit,  he  summoned  Plato  from  Athens. 

XXII.  Separation.  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive with  or  without  a  preposition  (413)  : 

Caedem  a  vobls  depello,  /  ward  off  slaughter  from  you.  Hoc  audlvl  de 
parente  meo,  /  heard  this  from  my  father.  Are  utilitate  laudatur,  an  art  is 
praised  because  of  its  usefulness. 

XXni.  Comparatives  without  QUAM  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive (41T): 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue. 

INSTRUMENTAL  ABLATIVE. 

XXIV.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419)— 

I.  To  denote  ACCOMPANIMENT.     It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum : 
Vlvit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  with  Balbus. 

II.  To  denote  CHARACTERISTIC  or  QUALITY.     It  is  then  modified  by  an 
Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue. 

III.  To  denote  MANNER.     It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum,  or  is  mod- 
ified by  an  Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Cum  virtute  vlxit,  h-e  lived  virtuously. 

XXV.  INSTRUMENT  and  MEANS  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (420) : 
Cornibus  taurl  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 

XXVI.  The  Ablative  is  used  (421)— 

I.  With  titor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimls  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  we  enjoy  and  use  very  m<iny  thinyx. 

II.  With  VERBS  and  ADJECTIVES  OF  PLENTY  : 

Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  mclle,  the  villa  abounds  in  milk,  cheese,  and  honey. 

III.  With  dlgnus,  indlgnus,  and  contentus  : 
Dlgnl  sunt  amlcitia,  they  are  rrorthy  of  friendship. 

XXVII.  PRICE  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (422) : 
Vendidit  aur6  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold. 

XXVIII.  The  MEASURE  OF  DIFFERENCE  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (423) : 

Un6  die  longiorcm  mensem  faciunt,  they  make  the  month  one  day  longer. 

XXIX.  A  noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative  to  de- 
fine its  application  (424) : 

Nomine,  non  potentate,  fuit  rex,  he  was  king  in  name,  not  in  power. 


328  RULES   OF  SYNTAX. 

LOCATIVE  ABLATIVE. 

XXX.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  is  denoted  (425)  — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative  with  the  preposition  in  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  wag  in  Italy. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  by  the  Locative,  if  such  a  form  exists,  other- 
wise by  the  Locative  Ablative  : 

Romae  fuit,  he  was  at  Home. 

XXXI.  The  TIME  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
(429): 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  in  his  eightieth  year. 

XXXII.  A  noun  and  a  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Ablative  to 
add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance  (431)  : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Serving. 

CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 
.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with  prepo- 


sitions 

Ad  amicum,  to  a  friend.    In  Italia,  in  Italy. 

AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES,  PRONOUNS,  AND  VERBS. 

XXXIV.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  GENDER,  NUM- 
BER, and  CASE  (438)  : 

Forttina  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind. 

XXXV.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  GENDER,  NUM- 
BER, and  PERSON  (445)  : 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood. 

XXXVI.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  NUMBER  and 
PERSON  (460)  : 

Ego  r&gSs  eject,  I  have  banished  kings. 

USE  OP  THE  INDICATIVE. 

XXXVU.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts  (474)  : 
Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world. 

MOODS  AND  TENSES  EN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES. 

/ 

XXXVIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  NOT 

AB  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  (483)  : 
Valeant  elves,  may  the  citizens  be  well. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  329 

XXXTX.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  NOT  AS 
REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  (485) : 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire. 

XL.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  COMMANDS,  EXHORTATIONS,  and 

ENTREATIES  (487) : 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice. 

MOODS  AND  TENSES  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

XLI.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses  ;  historical 
upon  historical  (491) : 

Enitit  ur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer. 

XLII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  PURPOSE  (497) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qul,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  etc. : 

Missl  sunt  qul  (=  ut  iX)  c6nsulerent  Apollinem,  they  were  tent  to  consult 
Apollo. 

II.  With  ut,  no,  quo,  quominus : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer, 

XLIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  RESULT  (500) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qtd,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  ciir, 
etc. : 

Non  is  sum  qul  (=  ut  ego)  his  utar,  /  am  not  such  a  one  as  to  use  these 
things. 

II.  With  ut,  ut  ii5n,  quln : 

Ita  vlxit  ut  AthSniensibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  was  vtry 
dear  to  the  Athenians. 

XLIV.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  nl,  sin,  take  (507) — 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  supposed  case : 
Si  splritum  d  licit,  vlvit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive. 

II.  The  PRESENT  or  PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  both  clauses  to  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  possible : 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me,  if  I  should 
wish  to  defend  the  cause. 

III.  The  IMPERFECT  or  PLUPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVK  in  both  clauses  to  rep- 
resent the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Pluribus  verbls  ad  tfc  scriberem,  si  res  verba  dCsideriiret,  /should  write  tc 
you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words. 

XLV.   Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  (518)- 


330  RULES   OF  SYNTAX. 

I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,  '  if  only,'  '  provided  that ' ;  dum  nS, 
modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  '  if  only  not,'  '  provided  that  not ' : 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  powers  remain,  if  only 
industry  remains. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  '  as  if,'  '  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebo,  ac  si  scrtpsisses,  /  shall  regard  it  just  as  it  (i.  e.,  as  i 
should  if)  you  had  written. 

XL VI.  Concessive  clauses  take  (515) — 

I.  Generally  the  INDICATIVE  in  the  best  prose,  when  introduced  by 
quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand. 

II.  The  INDICATIVE  or  SUBJUNCTIVE  when  introduced  by  etsl,  etiamsi, 
tametsl,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses  with  si  : 

Etsl  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  though  I  knoiv  no  reason  why  I  should  rejoice. 

III.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  when  introduced  by  licet,  quamvls,  ut,  ne,  cum,  or 
the  relative  qul.' 

Licet  irrideat,  though  he  may  deride. 

XL VII.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  gen- 
erally  take  (516)— 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  to  assign  a  reason  positively  on  owe's  own  authority : 
Quoniam  supplicati6  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed. 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully,  or  on  another's  au- 
thority : 

S6crates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  accused, 
because  he  corrupted  the  youth. 

XLVIII.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qul  generally  take  the 
Subjunctive  in  writers  of  the  best  period  (517) : 

Cum  vita  metus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear. 

XLIX.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam,  postedquam,  uM,  ut, 
#imul  atque,  etc.,  'after,.?  'when,'  'as  soon  as,'  the  Indicative  is 
used  (518) : 

Postquam  vidit,  etc. ,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  he  saw,  etc. 

L.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  WHTLE,  AS  LONG  AS,  take  the  INDICATIVE  (519) : 

Haec  f6cl,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed. 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sens* 
of  UNTIL,  take — 


RULES   OF  SYNTAX.  331 

1.  The  INDICATIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  ACTUAL  PACT: 
Dellbera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I  return. 

2.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  DESIRED, 

PROPOSED,  OF  CONCEIVED  : 

Different,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools. 
LI.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam  (520) — 
I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  is  put — 

1.  In  the  INDICATIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  ACTUAL  FACT: 
Priusquam  lucet,  adsimt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light. 

2.  In  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  SOMETHING  DE- 

BIRED,  PROPOSED,  OF  CONCEIVED: 

Antequam  de  rC  publica  dlcam,  before  /(can)  speak  of  the  republic. 
II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  : 
Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before  they  toolc  the  city. 
LII.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  (521) — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  is  put  in  the 
INDICATIVE  : 

Cum  quiSscunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent,  they  approve. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  INDICATIVE,  when  the  temporal  clause  ASSERTS  AN  HISTORICAL 
PACT: 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary. 

2.  In  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  temporal  clause  simply  DEFINES  THE 
TIMK  of  the  principal  action  : 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  while  I  was  folding  the  letter. 
LIII.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  on  becom- 
ing INDIRECT  take  the  INFINITIVE  or  SUBJUNCTIVE  as  follows  (523) : 

I.  When  DECLARATIVE,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative  : 
Dlcebat  animOs  ease  dlvlnOs,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 

II.  When  INTERROGATIVE,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulate  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sib!  vellet,  cur  venlret,  to  the  de- 
mands of  Caesar  he  replied,  what  did  he  wish,  why  did  he  come  f 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative,  as  in  rhetorical 
questions : 

Docebant  rem  ease  testimOnio,  etc. ;  quid  ease  levius,  they  showed  that  tht 
fact  was  a  proof,  etc.  ;  what  was  more  inconsiderate? 


332  RULES   OF  SYNTAX. 

III.  When  IMPERATIVE,  they  take  the  Subjunctive  : 
Scrtbit  Labieno  cum  legi&ne  veniat,  he  writes  to  Labienus  to  vmt  (that  he 
should  come)  with  a  legion. 

LIV.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE,  on  be- 
coming INDIRECT,  take  the  Subjunctive  (524) : 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Nervils  fecisset  facturum,  he  replied  that  he  would 
do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii. 

LV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  (529)— 
I.  In  indirect  questions : 

Quaeritur,  cur  dc-ctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree. 

II.-  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  another  Sub- 
junctive : 

Nihil  indlgnius  est  quam  eum  qul  culpa  careat  supplicio  non  carSre,  noth- 
ing it  more  shameful  than  that  he  who  is  free  from  fault  should  not  bt  ex- 
empt from  punishment, 

INFINITIVE. 

LVI.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or  qualify  then 
meaning  (533) : 

Haeo  vltare  cupimua,  we  desire  to  avoid  these  things. 

LVII.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative  and  an 
Infinitive  (534): 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  b«  wise. 

LVIII.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as  its  sub 
ject  (536) : 

Platdnem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentuni. 

SUPINE. 

LIX.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express 
PURPOSE  (546)  : 

LegatI  venerunt  res  repetltum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 

LX.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Speci 
fication  (547) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  auditu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 

ADVERBS. 

LXI.  Adverbs  qualify  VERBS,  ADJECTIVES,  and  other  ADVERBS 
(551) : 

Sapientee  ffellciter  vlvunt,  the  wise  live  happily 


ARRANGEMENT  OF   WORDS.  333 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS    AND 
CLAUSES. 

559.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording  peculiar  facilities 
both  for  securing  proper  emphasis,  and  for  imparting  to  its  periods 
that  harmonious  flow  which  characterizes  the  Latin  classics.     But 
with  all  this  freedom  and  variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of 
arrangement  which  it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 

L  ARRANGEMENT  OP  WORDS. 
general  Rules. 

560.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modifiers  occupies  the  first 
place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded  by  its  modifiers 
the  last  place  : 

Sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  tun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic.  Animus  aegcr 
semper  errat,  a  diseased  mind  always  errs.  Cic.  Miltiades  Athenas  liberavit, 
Miltiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep. 

561.  EMPHASIS  and  EUPHONY  affect  the  arrangement  of  words. 
L  Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed 

at  the  BEGINNING  of  the  sentence : 

Silent  leges  inter  arraa,  laws  ABE  SILENT  in  war.  Cic.  Nwnitori  Remus 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  TO  NCIOTOR.  Liv. 

II.  Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being 
placed  at  the  END  of  the  sentence : 

Nobls  nOn  satisfacit  ipse  D'emottheneg,  even  DEMOSTHENES  doe*  not  satisfy 
«*.  Cic.  COnsulatum  petlvit  nunquam^  he  NEVER  soutjlit  the  consulship.  Cic. 

III.  Two  words  naturally  connected,  as  a  noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a 
noun  and  its  Genitive,  are  sometimes  made  emphatic  by  SEPARATION  : 

Objwrgdtidnes  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessarian,  sometimes  necessary  RE- 
PROOFS occur.   Cic.     Justitiae  fungiitur  officils,  let  him  discharyt  the  duties  of 
Cic. 


NOTK.— A  word  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed  between  the  part*  of  a  com 
pound  tense : 

Magna  adhlblta  cura  est,  great  care  ha*  been  taken.  Cic. 

562.  CHIASMUS.' — When  two  groups  of  words  are  contrasted, 
the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  tin-  second : 


>  So  called  from  the  Greek  letter  X. 


334  ARRANGEMENT  OF   WORDS. 

Fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  movet,  the  imperishable  soul  moves  tht 
perishable  body.  Cic. 

563.  KINDRED  WORDS. — Different  forms  of  the  same  word,  or 
different  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  generally  placed  near 
each  other: 

Ad  senem  senex  de  senectute  scrips!,  /,  an  old  matt,  wrote  to  an  old  man 
in  the  subject  of  old  age,  Cic.  Inter  sS  alias  alii  prosunt,  they  benefit  each 
Iker.  Cic. 

564.  A  word  which  has  a  COMMON  RELATION  to  two  other  wordvS 
connected  by  conjunctions,  is  placed— 

I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

Pacis  et  artSs  et  gloria,  both  the  arts  and  the  glory  of  peace.  Liv.  Belli 
pacisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  Genitive  or  an  adjective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it 
more  frequently  qualifies  only  the  latter : 

Haec  percunctatio  ac  denuntiatiO  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration  of  war.  Liv. 

II.  Sometimes  directly  after  the  first  before  the  conjunction : 
Honoris  certamen  et  gloriae,  a  struggle  for  honor  and  glory.   Cic.    Agrf 

onrnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.   Cic. 

Special  Rules. 

565.  The  MODIFIERS  OP  A  NOUN  generally  follow  it.     They 
may  be  either  adjectives  or  nouns : 

Populus  Romanus  decrevit,  the  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Herodotus, 
pater  historiae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  offlcils,  thr 
took  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Modifiers,  when  emphatic,  are  placed  before  their  nouns: 

Tuscus  ager  Romano  adjacet  the  TUSCAN  territory  borders  on  the  Roman.  Liv. 

2.  When  a  noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Genitive,  the  usual  order 
Is,  Adjective — Genitive, — noun: 

Magna  clvium  penuria,  a  great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

3.  An  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  a  monosyllabic  preposition : 
Magn5  cum  periculo  ease,  to  be  attended  with  great  peril.  Cic. 

4.  In  the  poets  an  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  the  modifier  of  another 
aoun: 

InspCrata  tuae  veniet  pluma  luperbiae,  the  unexpected  down  shall  come  upon  your 
pride.  Hor. 

566.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  AN  ADJECTIVE  generally  precede  it, 
but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may  follow  it : 

Facile  doctissimus,  unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Omni  aetfttl 
communis,  common  to  every  aye.  Cic.  Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise, 
Cic. 

567.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  A  VERB  generally  precede  it : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF   WWRDS.  335 

Gloria  virtutem  sequitur,  glory  follows  virtue.  Cic.  Mundus  deO  paret, 
the  world  is  subject  to  God.  Cic.  Vehementer  dlxit,  he  spoke  vehemently.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  verb  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course, 
follow;  see  the  first  example  under  561, I. 

2.  An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  course  stand  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  (561): 

FacUlime"  cognoscuntur  adulOscentOs.  most  easily  are  the  young  men  recognised.  Cic. 

3.  Of  two  or  more  modifiers  belonging  to  the  same  verb,  that  which  in  thought  is 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb  stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged 
as  emphasis  and  euphony  may  require : 

Mors  propter  brevitatem  vitae  nunquam  longe  abest,  death  is  never  far  distant,  in 
consequence  of  the  shortness  of  life.  Cic. 

568.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  AN  ADVEKB  generally  precede  it,  but 
a  Dative  often  follows  it: 

Valde  vehementer  dlxit,  he  spoke  very  vehemently.  Cic.  Congruenter 
nuturae  vivit,  he  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

569.  SPECIAL  WORDS. — Some  words  have  a  favorite  place  in 
the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.     Thus — 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun : 
CostCs  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.   Cic. 

1.  lilt  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450,  4)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  acoon»- 
pauicd  by  an  adjective: 

MOdOa  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic. 

2.  Pronouns  are  oft«n  brought  together,  especially  quisque  with  swus  or  sul  : 
Juatitia  sunm  cuique  tribnit,/j«<tc«  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (hia  own).  Cic.    Qu! 

scse  student  praestarc,  etc.,  who  are  eager  to  excel,  etc.  Sal) 

IL  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tenus 
and  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiain  profugit,  Tie  fled  into  Asia.   Cic.     Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

1.  The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  sometimes  other  pronouns,  and 
tometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Res  qua  de  agitur,  the  subject  of  which  ire  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra,  over 
against  Italy.  Verg.  Corpus  in  Aeacidae,  into  the  body  of  Aeacides.  Verg. 

2.  For  cum  appended  to  an  Ablative,  see  184,  6;  187,  2. 

8.  Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a  few  other  words  sometimes  stand  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  its  case.  In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  Accusa- 
tive of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  some  other  word ;  and  sometimes  the  verb  >~ro  is  omitted  : 

Post  Alexandri  mugni  mortem,  after  Me  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Cic.  Ad 
bene  vivenduin,  for  living  well.  Cic.  Per  ego  has  lacriuias  te  6r6,  / implore  you  by 
these  tears.  Verg.  Per  ego  vos  deoi  (=  per  deos  ego  vos  6ro),  /  pray  you  in  VIA  name 
of  the  gods.  Curt. 

III.  Conjunctions  and  Relatives,  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 
stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ;  but  autem,  enim,  quidc.m,  yuoque, 
verS,  and  generally  igitur,  follow  some  other  word : 

Si  peocavl,  ignOsce,  if  1  have  erred,  pardon  me.    Cic.     Il  qul  superiores 


836  ARRANUEMKflT  OF  (JLAUtMS. 

sunt,  tJuKt  who  are  superior.  Cio.     Ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  but  h*  h^m*tl) 
taw  all  things.   Cic. 

1.  A  conjunction  may  follow  a  relative  or  an  emphatic  word,  and  a  relative  may  follow 
an  emphatic  word : 

Id  ut  audivit,  a*  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so. 
Cic.  Trojae  qul  primus  ab  Oris  venit,  who  came  first  from  the  shores  of  Troy.  Vergf. 

NOTE. — Certain  conjunctions,  as  et,  nee,  serf,  and  even  aut  and  rel,  are  more  frequent!1 
•emoved  from  the  beginning  of  the  clause  in  poetry  than  in  prose  : 

Compressus  et  omnis  impetus,  and  all  violence  was  cheeked.  Verg. 

1.  We — quidem  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  part  g : 

Ne  in  oppidls  quidem,  not  even-  in  the  towns.  Cic. 

8.  Quidem  often  follows  pronouns,  superlatives,  and  ordinals: 

Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audiet,  from  me  indeed  he  will  hear  nothing.  Cic. 

4.  Que,  ve,  ne,  introducing  a  clause  or  phrase,  are  generally  appended  to  the  flrex 
word;  but  if  that  word  is  a  preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the  next  word : 

In  foroque,  and  in  the  forum.  Cic.    Inter  uosque,  and  among  us.  Cic. 

IV.  Non,  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before  that 
word ;  but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire  clause, 
it  sometimes  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause,  and  sometimes  before 
the  finite  verb  or  before  the  auxiliary  of  a  compound  tense : 

Hac  villa  carere  non  possunt,  they  are  not  able  to  do  without  thit  villa.  Cic. 
Non  fuit  Juppiter  metuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  be  feared.  Cic.  Fas  non 
putant,  they  do  not  think  it  right.  Cic.  Pecunia  soluta  n6n  est,  the  money 
has  not  been  paid.  Cic. 

1.  In  general,  in  negative  clauses  the  negative  word,  whether  particle,  verb,  or  noun, 
la  made  prominent: 

Nepal  quemquam  posse,  he  dtnies  that  any  one  is  able.  Cic.  Nihil  est  melius, 
nothing  is  better.  Cic. 

V.  Inquam,  sometimes  aid,  introducing  a  quotation,  follows  one  or  more 
of  the  words  quoted.    The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows  its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dlcam,  nothing  which  I  shall  state,  said  Brutus. 
Cic. 

VI.  The  Vocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.     It 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word : 

PSrge,  Laell,  proceed,  Laettm.   Cie. 

II.  AKKANGEMENT  OP  CLAUSES. 

570.  Clauses  connected  by  "coordinate  conjunctions  (554)  fol- 
low each  other  in  the  natural  order  of  the  thought,  as  in  English : 

86l  ruit  et  monies  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting,  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Verg.  Gyges  a  nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat, 
Gyges  was  seen  by  no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

571.  A  clause  used  as  the  SUBJECT  of  a  complex  sentence  (348) 
generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  a  clause  used 
as  the  PREDICATE  at  the  end : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES.  337 

Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  -what  a  day  may  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic. 
Exitus  fuit  orationis,  sibi  nullara  eura  his  amlcitiam  ease,  the  close  of  the  ora- 
tion was,  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.  Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  th.it  of  the  simple  sentence;  see  560. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of  clauses 
da  upon  the  arrangement  of  words;  see  561. 

572.  Clauses  used  as  the  SUBORDINATE  ELEMENTS  of  complex 
sentences  admit  three  different  arrangements : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal  clause,  like  the  sub- 
ordinate elements  of  a  simple  sentence : 

HostCs,  ubf  prlmum  nostros  equites  consp6x6runt,  celeriter  nostros  per- 

turbavgrunt,  the  enemy,  an  noon  as  they  taw  our  cavalry,  quickly  put  our  men 

to  rout.   Caes.    Sententia,  quae  tiitissima  videbatur,  vlcit,  the  opinion  wJiich 
seemed  the  safest  prevailed.   Liv. 

II.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause : 

Cum  quiSscunt,  probant,  while  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Quails 
sit  animus,  animus  ne.-cit,  the  soul  knows  not  ivhat  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

NOTE. — This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  either  refers 
back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  temporal,  conditional,  and  concexzive  clauses  often  precede  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  M—qui,  tdlis — qudlin, 
t<i>/tiii — /juantus,  turn — cum,  itn — ut,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e.,  the  clause  with 
>/>ti,  qudlix,  quantus,  cum,  ut,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause: 

Knltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  cony  tier.  Cic.  Sol  efflcit  ut  omnia 
flOreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.  Cic. 

NOTE. — This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  either 
intimately  connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence,  or  explanatory  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence,  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples. 

573.  LATIN  PERIODS. — A  complex  sentence  in  which  two  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  are  inserted  within  the  principal  clause  is 
called  a  PERIOD  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

NOTE  1.— The  examples  given  under  572,  I.,  are  short  and  simple  example!  of  Latin 
Periods. 

NOTK  2.— Many  Latin  periods  consist  of  several  carefully  constructed  clauses  so  united 
as  to  form  one  complete  harmonious  whole.  For  examples,  see  Cicero's  Third  Oration 
against  Catiline,  XII., '8ed  quoniam  .  .  .  prdvidere1;  also  Livy,  I.,  rt,  'Numitor,  inter 
primum  .  .  .  ostendit.' 

NOTE  8.— In  a  freer  sense  the  terra  Period  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  complex  sen- 
tences which  end  with  principal  clauses.  In  this  sense  the  examples  given  under  57%. 
II.,  are  Periods.  Many  carefully  elaborated  Latin  sentences  are  constructed  in  this  way ; 
see  Cicero's  Oration  for  the  Poet  Archias,  I.,  '  Quod  si  haec  .  .  .  di-btSinus ' ;  also  the  Pint 
Vrttion  against  Catiline,  XIII.,  '  Ut  saepe  homines  .  .  .  ingravSscet' 

81 


338  RULES  OF  QUANTITY 

PART  FOURTH. 
P  E  O  S  O  D  T. 

574.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification. 


CHAPTER     I. 

QUANTITY. 

575.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a  syllable  in  poetry 
is  called  its  quantity.1     Syllables  are  accordingly  characterized  as 
long,  short,  or  common."* 

I.  GENERAL  RULES  OP  QUANTITY. 

576.  A  syllable  is  LONG  IN  QUANTITY— 

I.  If  it  contains  a  DIPHTHONG  or  a  LONG  VOWEL,  or  is 
the  result  of  CONTRACTION  : 

haec,  foedus  ;  duco;  cogo  (for  coigo),  occldo  (for  oceaedo),  nil  (/V>rnihil). 

I.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  praeacutus. 

II.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  X  or  Z,  or  any  Two  CON- 
SONANTS except  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : 9 

major,  dux,  servus,  sunt,  regunt,  regnum,  agmen. 

1.  But  one  or  both  of  the  consonants  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as  the 
vowel:  db*  sede, per4  saxa. 

NOTE  1. — H  has  no  tendency  in  combination  with  any  consonant  to  lengthen  a  pre- 
ceding syllable.  Hence  in  such  words  as  AekaeiM,  AtMnae,  the  first  syllable  is  short. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  early  pools  a  short  final  syllable  ending  in  *  remained  short  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  sometimes  also  short  final  syllables  ending  in  other 
consonants  :  imaginteformam,  e/rwm  vero,  erat  dicto.* 

1  In  many  cases  the  quantity  of  syllables  may  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary, 
hat  in  others  the  student  may  be  greatly  aided  by  certain  general  statements  or  rules. 

2  That  is,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 

8  Here  the  syllable  is  long  by  nature  if  the  vowel  is  long,  but  long  only  by  position 
If  the  vowel  is  short.  For  the  quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  coii 
tenant,  see  651. 

4  Here  db  becomes  long  before  «  in  sede,  and  per  before  »  in  sama. 

6  Here  the  syllables  it,  /'»»,  and  at  remain  short 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  339 

NOTE  3. — In  the  early  poets  many  syllables  Ions  by  position  in  the  Augustan  poets 
are  sometimes  short,  as  the  first  syllable  of  ecce,  eryo,  Hie,  inter,  oittnin,  wide,  uxor. 

NOTB  4. — A  final  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  is  occasionally,  though  rarely,  lengthened 
by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word. 

NOTE  5. — In  Greek  words  a  syllable  with  a  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  nasal  is  some- 
times short :  cycniis,  Tecmessa. 

2.  A  syllable  before ,;'  is  long,  except  in  bijugus,  is,  quadrijuyus,  is ;  see 
16,  N.  2. 

577.  A  syllable  is  SHORT  IK  QUANTITY  if  its  vowel  is 
followed  in  the  same  word  by  another  VOWEL,  by  a  DIPH- 
THONG, or  by  the  aspirate  H  : 

dies,  doceo,  viae,  nihil. 

I.  The  following  vowels,  with  the  syllables  which  contain  them,  are 
long  by  EXCEPTION  : 

1.  A — (1)  in  the  Genitive  ending  SI  of  Dec.  I.:  aulal ;  (2)  m  proper 
names  in  aius :  O&ius  (Gajus) ;  (3)  before  ta,  ie,  to,  iu,  in  the  verb  aio. 

2.  E — (1)  in  the  ending  el  of  Dec.  V.  when  preceded  by  a  vowel :  diel  ; 
and  sometimes  when  preceded  by  a  consonant :  fdei,  rel ;  often  in  the  Da- 
tive Singular  of  the  pronoun  is;  ll/  (2)  in  proper  names  in  eius:  Pom- 
peius ;  (3)  in  eJieu,  and  in  Rhea* 

3.  I — (1)  in  the  verb  flG,  when  not  followed  by  cr:  flam,  flebatn,  but 
fieri  /*  (2)  in  dlus,  a,  urn  (for  dlvus,  a,  Mm);  (3)  generally  in  the  Genitive 
ending  IMS  :  allus,  illlits  ;  (4)  sometimes  in  Diana. 

4.  O — sometimes  in  dhe. 

6.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a  vowel,  because  long 
in  the  original :  03r,  AenZOs,  Brlseis,  Meneldus,  TrSes. 

NOTB.— This  often  occurs  in  proper  names  In  ea,  la,  $us,  lus,  iWn,  Ifm,  <Jt«,  <tit, 
diiw:  Medea,  Alexandria,  Peneue,  Darius,  Orion. 

578.  A  syllable  is  COMMON  IN  QUANTITY  if  its  vowel, 
naturally  short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : 

ager,  agrl ;  pater,  patris ;  duplex,  triplex. 

NOTE  1. — A  syllable  ending  In  a  mute  In  the  first  part  of  a  compound  before  a  liquid 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  is  long :  n/i-rumpn,  ob-rog<>. 

NOTF,  2.— In  I'lautus  and  Terence  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel  before  »  mute  tnd  a 
liquid  is  short. 

n.  QUANTITY  OF  FINAL  SYLLABLES. 

579.  Monosyllables  are  long  : 

a,  da,  te,  Be,  de,  si,  qul,  do,  pro,  tu,  d6s,  pCs,  sis,  b&s,  sfls,  par,  s&l. 


1  The  name  of  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  of  a  priceless  in  Vergil.    In  Rhea,  anoth- 
er name  for  Cybelf,  the  e  is  short. 

*  Sometimes  fieri  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 


340  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

I.  The  following  are  short  by  EXCEPTION  : 

1.  Enclitics :  que,  ve,  ne,  ce,  te,  pse,  pie. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  m,  t  :  ab,  ad,fel,  sum,  et ;  except  xdl,  *0l. 

3.  An,  bix,  cis,  cor,  es,  fac,  fer,  in,  is,  nee,  as  (ossis),  per,  ter,  qua  (indef- 
inite), quix,  vir,  vas  (vadis),  and  sometimes  file  and  hoc  in  the  Nominative 
and  Accusative. 

580.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable — 

I.  The  final  vowels  i,  o,  and  u  are  long;  a,  e,  and  y, 
short : ' 

marl,  audl,  servo,  omuino,  fructii,  coruu ;  via,  maria,  mare,  misy. 

II.  Final  syllables  in  c  are  long ;  in  d,  1,  m,  n,  r,  t,  short : 

alec,  illue ;  illud,  consul,  amem,  carmen,  amor,  caput. 
NOTB  1.  —  Ddnec  and  lien  are  exceptions. 

NOTE  2. — Final  syllables  in  n  and  r  are  long  In  many  Greek  words  which  end  long 
in  the  original :  as  Titan,  AnchlsZn,  Hyiiien,  Dtlphin,  air,  aelMr,  crater. 

III.  The  final  syllables  as,  es,  and  os  are  long  ;  is,  us, 
ys,  short : 

amas,  mensas,  mones,  nubes,  servos;  avis,  urbis,  bonus,  chlamys. 

NOTE  1.  —The  learner  will  remember  that  short  final  syllables  like  is,  v«,  etc.,  may 
be  lengthened  by  being  placed  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant  ;  see  57O,  II. 

NOTE  2.— Plautus  retains  the  original  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  usually  short 
in  the  Augustan  age.  Thus  the  endings  a,  e,  dl,  ar,  dr,  Is,  Us,  &t,  ?t,  It,  often  stand  in 
place  of  the  later  endings  a,  e,al,  ar,or,  is,  us,  at,  et,  it('i\ ).  Some  of  these  early  forms 
are  retained  by  Terence,  and  some  of  them  occasionally  occur  in  the  Augustan  poets. 

NOTB  3.  -•  Plantus  and  Terence,  in  consequence  of  the  colloquial  character  of  com- 
edy, often  shorten  unaccented  final  syllables  after  an  accented  short  syllable:  ama, 
abi,  dedi,  domi,  domo,  tiro,  pedex. 

NOTE  4.  -  In  Plautus  and  Terence  ihe  doubling  of  a  letter  does  not  usually  affect 
the  quantity  of  the  syllable  :  II  in  ille,  mm  in  iininS,  pp  in  opportuiii. 

581.  Numerous  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  the 
quantity  of  final  syllables  occur  even  in  classical  Latin  : 

I.  I  fined,  usually  LONG,  is  sometimes  SHORT  or  COMMON — 

1.  SHORT  in  nisi,  quasi,  cui  (when  a  dissyllable),  and  in  the  Greek  ending 
jriof  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 

2.  COMMON  in  mihl,  tibl,  sibl,  tin,  ubl,  and  in  the  Dative  and  Vocative 
Singular  of  some  Greek  words. 

II.  O  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1 .  In  duo,  ego,  ttcto,  eJio,  in  the  adverbs  cito,  llico,  modo,  and  its  compounds, 
dummodo.  quomodo,  etc.,  in  cedo,  and  in  the  old  form  endo. 

-fis  short  in  indu&nd  /<!/<«.    Contracted  syllables  are  long,  according  to  576,1. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  341 

2.  Sometimes  (1)  in  nouns  of  Dec.  III.  and  (2)  in  verbs,  though  very 
rarely  in  the  best  poets. 

III.  A.  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  the  Ablative :  mSnsd,  bond,  ilia. 

2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as:  AenSd,  Palld.1 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Particles:  amd,  curd;  circd.juxta,  anted,  fr&stra.    Ex- 
cept ita,  qvia,  eja,  heja,  andpwta  used  adverbially. 

IV.  f*  final,  usually  SHOKT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V.,7  and  in  Greek  plurals  of  Dec.  III. :  epitome, •  rS,  die; 
tempi,  melS. 

2.  Generally  in  the  Dative  ending  I  of  Dec.  III. :  aeri  =  aeri. 

3.  In  the  Singular  Imperative  Active  of  Conj.  II.:  mong,  doce.    But  e  is 
sometimes  short  in  cave,  iridJl,  etc.* 

4.  \\\  fere,  fei-rne,  ohe,  and  in  adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II.:  docti, 
recte.     Except  bene,  male,  Inferne,  interne,-  superne. 

V.  As  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  ana*  and  in  a  few  Greek  nouns  in  as :  Areas,  tempos. 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. :  Arcadas,  herdax. 

VT.  Es  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT— 

1.  In  Nomr  .?.tives  Singular  of  Dec.  ITL  with  short  increment  (588)  it 
the  Genitive:  miles  (itis),  obses  (idis),  interpres  (etis).     Except  abtia,  aries, 
paries,  Ceres,  and  compounds  of  pes,  as  bipes,  tripes,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  of  es,  as  ades,  potes. 

3.  In  Greek  worda — (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Geni- 
tive: Arcades,  Trdades ;  (2)  in  a  few  neuters  in  es:  Jlippomeiiet ;  (3)  in  u 
few  Vocatives  Singular :  Demosthenes. 

VII.  OB  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  compos,  impost,  exes. 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek :  Delox,  melos. 

VIII.  Is  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  plural  cases :  mentis,  sercls,  rdbis.     Hence  foris,  gratis,  inyrdtis. 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive:    Quint 
(His),  Salttmis  (Inis). 

3.  In  the  Singular  Present  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV. :  awli*. 

NOTE. — Mil-vis,  qulvl*,  utervln,  follow  the  quantity  of  rl». 

4.  In  the  Singular  Present  Subj.  Act. :  po*sls,  veils,  ndhs,  malls. 


1  Sometimes  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  an  and  in. 
*  Hence,  in  the  cotnjKjiinds,  hodir,  pridte,  postrldif,  rjutirf 

'  lu  the  comic  poets  many  dissyllabic  Imperatives  with  a  short  penult  shorten  the 
ultimate:  as  habt,  ju.be.  -none,  move,  face,  tene.  etc. 


342  RULES   OF  QUANTITY. 

6.  Sometimes  in  the  Singular  of  the  Future  Perfect  and  of  the  Perfect 
Subjunctive :  amdveris,  docutris. 

IX.  Us  Jinal,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive;  virtu* 
(utis),  tellus  (uris). 

NOT«. — But  palus  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace,  Ars  Poetica,  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Plural :  friictv*. 

3.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  the  original :  Panthiis,  Sipphus,  tripus. 
NOTE. — But  we  have  Oedipus  and  polypits, 

III.  QUANTITY  IN  INCREMENTS. 

582.  A  word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it  has  in 
any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  and  to 
have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has  additional  syllables : 
sermd,  sermonis,  sermonibus.1 

583.  A  verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it  has  in 
any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
Present  Indicative  Active,  and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  conju- 
gation as  it  has  additional  syllables :  amas,  amdtis,  amdbatis.* 

584.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the  penult ; 
if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with  the  requisite 
number  of  syllables  before  it.     The  increment  nearest  the  begin- 
ning of  the  word  is  called  the  first  increment,  and  those  following 
this  are  called  successively  the  second,  third,  and.  fourth  increments.3 

Increments  of  Declension. 

585.  In  the  Increments  of  Declension,  a  and  o  are  long  ; 
e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short :  * 

aetes,  aetatis,  aetatibus ;  sermo,  sermonis ;  puer,  puerl,  puerorum ;  fulgur, 
fulguris ;  chlamys,  chlamydis ;  bonus,  bonfirum,  bonorum ;  ille,  illarum,  il- 
lOrum ;  miser,  miserl ;  supplex,  supplicis ;  satur,  saturl. 

I.  A,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  SHORT  in  the  first 
Increment — 6 


1  Sermonis,  having  one  syllable  more  than  termd,  has  one  increment,  while  aermoni- 
l>ux  has  two  increments. 

a  Amutii  has  one  increment,  amabiitia  two. 

12  11$ 

*  In  ger-mon-i-buz,  the  first  increment  is  mdn,  the  second  i ;  and  in  mon-u-t-rd-mu», 
the  first  is  u,  the  second  e,  the  third  rd. 

*  Y  occurs  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in  the  increments  of  noons  in  yn  and  of 
•  few  others. 

6  Observe  that  the  exceptions  belong  to  the  flrtt  increment. 


RULES   OF  QUANTITY.  343 

1.  Of  masculines  in  al  and  ar  :  Hannibal,  Jfannibalis  ;  Caesar,  C'aesaris. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant:  daps,  dapis ;  Arabs,  Arabia; 
hiems,  Tiiemis. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a  and  as  :  poema,  poematis  ;  Pallas,  Palladia. 

4.  Of  (1)  baccar,  nepar,  jubar,  Idr,  nectar,  par,  and  its  compounds;  (2) 
anas,  max,  vas  (vadis) ;  (3)  sal,  fax,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words  in  ax. 

II.  O,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  SHORT  in  the  firsl 
increment — ' 

1.  Of  Neuters  in  Declension  III. :   aequor,  aeqvoris ;  tempus,  temporis* 
Except  os  (oris),  odor  (adoris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant :  inops,  inopis.    Except  Cyclop* 
and  hi/drop*. 

3.  Of  arbor,  bos,  lepus  ;  compos,  impos,  memor,  immemor  ;  Allobrox,  Cap- 
padox,  praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials  :  MacedO,  Macedonia. 

5.  Of  many  Greek  nouns — (1)  those  in  or:  rhetor,  Hector  ;  (2)  many  in  § 
and  on  increasing  short  in  Greek  :  aedon,  aedonis /  (3)  in  Greek  compounds 
mpus  or  pus  :  tripus  (odis),  Oedipus. 

III.  E,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  Declension  V. :  diet,  dierum,  diebus,  rebus.    But  in  the  Genitive  and 
Dative  Singular  sometimes  short  after  a  consonant :  fid&i,  spii. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  «»,  mostly  Greek     lien,  Uenis ;  Siren,  Sirenis.    So  Anib, 
Anienis. 

3.  Of  Celtyber,  Her,  ver,  heris,  locufles,  merces,  quiett,  ir  ,t  xtes,  reqwies,  plebg, 
lex,  rex,  alec,  dlex,  •vervex. 

4.  Of  a  few  Greek  words  in  eg  and  er :  lebte,  lebetis  ;  crater,  erdterit.    Ex- 
cept aer  and  aether. 

IV.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  Increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  most  words  in  tx  :  radix,  rddicis  ;  fel/iar^feUcis^ 

2.  Of  dis,  gUs,  lls,  vix,  Quirls,  fiamnis. 

3.  Of  delphin,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words. 
NOTE.— For  quantity  of  i  in  the  ending  lit*,  see  577,  8. 

V.  U,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  nouns  in  ut  with  the  Genitive  in  uris,  titis,  udit :  jus,  juris ;  salux. 
salutis ;  palus,  paludis.* 

2.  Offwr,frux,  lwr.,plw,  Pollux. 

1  See  p.  842,  foot-note  5 

*  But  short  in  appendix,  caliat,  Oilti1,  fiHys,  forniot,  nto,  pia,  Httfttr,  affix.  tm<\  a 
few  others,  chiefly  proper  names. 

*  But  short  in  intercut,  Ligwi.  pecut. 


344  RULES   OF  QUANTITY. 

Increments  of  Conjugation. 

586.  In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation  (583),  a,  e,  and 
o  are  long  ;  i  and  u  short : 

amamus,  amemus,  amatote  ;  regimus,  surnus. 

NOTE  1. — In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs,/«ro,  volo,  and  theif 
compounds,  the  fall  form  of  the  second  person,  feris,  volis,  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thus 
In  fertbam  and  rolebam,  the  increments  are  re  and  K. 

NOTB  2.— In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (255,  I.),  the  r«- 
duplication  is  not  counted.  Thus  dedimus  has  but  one  increment,  di. 

I.  A,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  SHORT  in  the 
first  increment  of  do  :  dare,  dabam,  circumdabam. 

II.  E,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  SHORT  before  r — 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram,  rim,  ro:  amaveram,  amdverim,  amaverO;  rexerat, 
rexerit. 

2.  In  the  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conjugation  III. : 
regere,  regeris,  regerem,  regerer. 

3.  In  the  Future  ending  beris,  here  :  amaberis  or  -ere,  moneberis, 

4.  Rarely  in  the  Perfect  ending  erunt:  steterunt  for  steterunt;  see  236, 
note ;  also  Systole,  6O8,  VI. 

III.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  I>ONG,  except 
before  a  vowel — 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conjugation  IV.,  except  imus  of  the  Perfect : 
audire,  audivi,  audit inn  ;  sentlre,  sentimm ;  sensimus  (Perfect). 

2.  In  Conjugation  III.,  in  the  first  increment  of  Perfects  and  Supines  in 
ivi  and  itum  (278),  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  irnus  of 
the  Perfect:  trivimus) :  cupivi,  cupiverat,  cupUus  ;  petivi,  petttus;  capteslvi, 
cap&ttturus.     Gavisus  from  gauded  follows  the  same  analogy. 

3.  In  the  endings  imw  and  Uis  of  the  Present  Subjunctive:  simw,  sUit ; 
velimus,  vdttis  (24O,  3). 

4.  In  nolUe,  nolitd,  ndlttote,  and  in  the  different  persons  of  ibam,  ibo,  from 
ed  (895). 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  rimut  and  rUis  of  the  Future  Perfect  an<? 
Perfect  Subjunctive :  amdverimus,  amdverltio. 

IV.  U,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  LONG  in  the 
Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it :  voltttum,  volutui'us,  amaturus. 

IV.  QUANTITY  OF  DERIVATIVE  ENDINGS. 

587.  The  most  important  derivative  endings  may  be  classifieC 
according  to  quantity  as  follows : 

I.  Derivative  endings  with  a  LONG  PENULT: 
1.  5brum.  acrum,  atrum: 
flfibrum,  simulacrum,  aratrum. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  345 

2.  «d8,  Id6,  ud6  ;  ag6,  Ig6,  ug6: 

dulcedo,  cupldo,  sSlitudo  ;  vorago,  orlgo,  aerug8. 

3.  ais,  eia,  ois,  otia,  Ine,  one"  —  in  patronymics  :  l 
Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  Minois,  Icariotis,  Nerlne,  AcrisiOne 

4.  ela,  lie  ;  alia,  elis,  ulis  : 
querela,  ovile  ;  mortalis,  fidelis,  curOlis. 

5.  anus,  enus,  onus,  onus  ;  ana,  ena,  ona,  una  : 

urbanus,  egSnus,  patronus,  tribunus;  membrana,  habena,  annfina,  la- 
ofiaa. 

6.  aria,  arus  ;  orus,  5sus  ;  avus,  Ivus  : 

salGtSris,  avarus  ;  canorus,  animosus  ;  octavus,  aestlvus. 

7.  atus,  etus,  itus,  otus,  utus  ;  atim,  Itim,  utim  ;  etum,  eta  :  • 
alatus,  facetus,  turrftus,  aegrotus,  cornutus  ;  singulatim,  vintim,  tribii- 

tbn  ;  querc6tum,  inouOta. 

8.  enl,  Inl,  onl  —  in  distributives: 
septfinl,  qulnl,  octOnL 

II.  Derivative  endings  with  a  SHORT  PENULT  — 

1.  ades,  iades,  ides  —  in  patronymics  * 
Aeneadcs,  Laertiadus,  Tantalidgs. 

2.  iacus,  icus,  idus  :  4 
Corinthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

3.  olus,  ola,  olnm  ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum  ;  culus,  cula,  culum  —  in  diminu 
'ives: 

flliolus,  flliola,  atriolum  ;  hortulus,  virgula,  oppidulum;  fldsculus,  pai- 
ticula,  mtlnusculuni. 

4.  etas,  itas  —  in  nouns  ;  iter,  itua  —  in  adverbs: 
pietas,  veritas  ;  fortiter,  dlvlnitus. 

6.  atilis,  ilia,  bills  —  in  verbals;  inua  —  in  adjectives  denoting  material 
or  time:* 

versatilis,  docili.«,  amabilis  ;  adatnantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinua,  diutinus. 


NOTE  1.—  His  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long  :  civ 
eri/it,  virW#. 

NOTE  2.—  Inus  denoting-  characteristic  (33O)  usually  has  the  penult  long  :  caninux, 
,  marinus. 


1  Except  Daiiain,  Phficait,  Thfbaix, 

9  Except  (1)  anhelitufi,  fortuitus,  grdtn\tw,  halitwt,  hospitux,  xpiritu* ;  (2)  adfn- 
Um.  Htatlm,  and  adverbs  in  itus,  as  divlnitut;  and  (8)  participles  provided  for  by  58ft 

*  Except  (1)  those  In  Idea  from  nouns  in  eus  and  en:  as,  Pffidfs  (I'eleus),  Neo. 
•I'm--.-.  (Neocles);  and  (2)  AmpMardldeg,  Amycttdea,  Jiflidt*,  Corfmldett,  Lycwrglde*. 

4  Except  amlcus,  antteus,  aprlcus,  mendlcwt,  poetic-mi,  jntd.lou9. 

'  Except  infitiitinwi.  rtpentlniM,  vetpertlniM- 


346  RULES   OF  QUANTITY 

III.  Derivative  endings  with  a  LONG  ANTEPENULT  . 

1.  aceus,  uceus,  aneus,  arius,  arium,  orius  : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  subitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censoriuB. 

2.  abundus,  acundus  ;  abilis,  atilis,  aticus : 
nrirabundus,  Iracundus  ;  amabilis,  versatilis,  aquaticus, 

3.  aginta,  igintl,  esimus — in  numerals  : 
n5naginta,  vigintl,  eentesimus. 

4.  imonia,  imonium ;  t orius,  sorius ;  toria,  torium : 
querimonia,  alimonium ;  amatSrius,  censorius ;  victoria,  auditorium. 

IV.  Derivative  endings  with  a  SHORT  ANTEPENULT  : 

1.  ibilis,  itudd,  olentus,  ulentus : 
credibilis,  solitude,  vlnolentus,  opulentus. 

2.  urio — in  desideratives  : 
Ssuno,  empturio,  parturiO. 

V.  QUANTITY  OF  STEM-SYLLABLES. 

588.  All  simple  verbs  in  id  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (2 IT] 
have  the  stem-syllable1  short: 

capiO,  cupio,  facio,  fodio,  fugio. 

589.  Most  verbs  which  form  the  Perfect  in  ul  have  the  stem- 
syllable  short: 

dome,  seed  habeo,  moneo,  alo,  col6. 

NOTE. — Ponii,  <f-ebed,  jtoreo,  pared,  and  several  inceptive  verbs,  are  exceptions. 

590.  Dissjllabic  Perfects  and  Supines  have  the  first  syllable 
long,  unless  short  by  position : 

juvo,  juvi,  julum;  foveo,  fbvl,  fotum. 

1.  Eight  I'erfocts  and  ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short: 
bibi,  dedi,  fidi,  liqui^  scidi,  stetl,  stiti,  lull;  citum,  datum,  ititm,  litum^ 
quitum,  ratuii,  iiitum,  satum,  situm,  statum.* 

591.  TrisyHabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  have  the  first  two  syl- 
lables short : 

cado,  cecidi;  cano,  cecinl;  disco,  didicl. 

NOTE  1. — Ca«df>  has  cecidl  in  distinction  from  cecidi  from  cado. 

NOTK  2.— The  second  syllable  may  be  made  loner  by  position  :  cucurrl,  momordl. 

592.  In  general,  inflected  forms  retain  the  quantity  of  stem-syl 
lables  unchanged :  * 

1  That  is,  the  syllable  preceding  the  characteristic. 

*  Liqm  from  liquef> ;  linqtu>  has  llqul.    Statum  from  sisto ;  sto  has  nkltum. 

•  But  see  rHstifllabic  Perfects  and  Supine*,  390. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  34? 

avis,  avem;  nubea,  nubium;  levis,  levior,  levisaimus;  moneO,  monebam 
monul. 

NOTE  1.— Position  may,  however,  affect  the  quantity :  ager,  agri;  possum,  potvfl; 
nolno,  tolutum;  vohio,  vottitum.1 

NOTE  2. — Glgnd  gives  genui,  gentium.,  and  pond,  posul,  positum. 

593.  Derivatives  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  the  stem-syl- 
ables  of  their  primitives  : 
bonus,  bonitas ;  timeO,  timor ;  animus,  animosus ;  civis,  clvicus  ;  cura,  euro. 

1.  Words  formed  from  the  same  root  sometimes  show  a  variation  in  the 
quantity  of  stem-syllables : 


dice, 
dux,  ducis, 

died, 
duco, 

persono, 
reg6, 

persona, 
rex,  regis,  regula, 

fides, 

fldo, 

secus, 

seam, 

homd, 

hum&nus, 

sedeo, 

sedes,  sedulua, 

lateO, 

laterna, 

serd, 

semen, 

lego, 

lex,  legis, 

sopor, 

sopio, 

macer, 

macero, 

suspicor, 

susplcio, 

moved, 

mObilis, 

tego, 

toguhi, 

nota, 

notum, 

vadum, 

vado 

odium, 

Odl, 

VOC6, 

vox,  vocis. 

NOTE  1. — This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction,  ac 
moniMlvi,  moibilw,  mobilit,  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same 
orthography,  as  the  verbs  legis,  leges,  regis,  reges,  sedes,  from  the  nouns  lifts,  Uget, 
regis,  reges,  tedes,  or  the  verts  ducts,  dvces,/ides,  from  the  nouns  ducis,  ditces,Jldee. 

NOTE  2.— A  few  derivatives  shorten  the  long  vowel  of  the  primitive  :  deer,  acerbus ; 
'•uced,  tueerna  ;  moles,  molestux. 

594.  Compounds  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  their  elements  : 
ante-ferO,  de-ferO,  de-duco,  in-aequalis,  prO-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity : 
de-lig6  (legO),  oc-cidd  (cadd),  oo-cldo  (caedd). 

2.  The  Inseparable  Prepositions  di,  se,  and  vi  are  long,  re  short ;  ne  some- 
times long  and  sometimes  short : 

dlduco,  seduco,  vecors,  reducO;  nedurn,  nefas: 

NOTE  \.-Di  is  short  in  dirimi)  and  disertus. 

NOTE  2. — Ne  is  long  in  nUdwrn,  nemo,  nequam,  nlqu&quam,  nequiquam,  n&fuitfai, 
and  neve.  In  other  words  it  is  short. 

NOTK  8. — Re  is  sometimes  lengthened  In  a  few  words :  rtligifi,  rlUqiidae,  rtperit 
f.pulit,  ritulit,  etc. 

3.  In  a  few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second  element  is  changed.    Thua 
JurO  gives  -jerO  ;  notus,  -nitus  ;  nufjd,-nvta:  de-jero,  cdg-nitus,  prO-nulm. 

4.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  praeacutut,  prae- 
Ottiu. 

5.  Prd  is  short  in  the  following  words : 

1  Here  the  first  syllable  is  short  in  ager,  but  common  in  agrl  (578);  long  In  pan 
•>um,  tvli-H,  lalrn  (576,  II.),  but  short  in  potul,  Holiitu/ia,  an 


348 


RULES  Of 


procella,  procul,  prof  anus,  profari,  profecto,  profestus,  prqficfocor,  profiteor^ 
prqfugio,  profugus,  prqfundv-s,  pronepos,  proneptis,  vrotervus,  and  in  most 
Greek  words,  as  propteta ;  generally  also  m  prtfundd,  propck/8,  propagb, 
propind,  rarely  in  prdcuro,  propello. 

6.  At  the  end  of  a  verbal  stem  compounded  with  facio  or  fid,  e  is  gener- 
ally short : 

calefacio,  calef 10,  labefaci&,  patefacio. 

7.  /  is  usually  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  compounds  of  diis  ; 
meridies,  prldie,  postrldie,  cotldie,  triduum. 

8.  0  is  long  in  contro-,  intro-,  retro-,  and  quando-  in  composition  : 
controversia,  introducd,  retrdvertd,  quandoque  ;  but  qitanddquidem. 

9.  The  quantity  of  the  final  i  in  ibi,  ubi,  and  utl  is  often  changed  in  com- 
position : 

ibidem,  ibique  ;  ubique,  iibinam,  tibivis,  ulUcunque,  nembi,  stcubt ;  utinam, 
vtique,  sicuti. 

10.  Hodie,  quasi,  quoque,  and  siquidem  have  the  first  syllable  short. 

595.  The  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables  in  cases  not  provided  for 
by  any  rules  now  given  will  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  such  syllables  will  be  found  to  be 
short.  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  list  of  the  most  important 
primitives  with  long  stem-syllables  is  added  :  * 


acer 

celo 

deleo 

fortuna 

Ignis 

adulor 

cera 

dlco  (ere) 

fretus 

letum 

fier 

cicada 

dirus 

fumus 

liber  (era,  erum) 

ala 

clvis 

dives 

funis 

Hb6 

alea 

clamo 

dlvus 

funus 

lllium 

altare 

clarus 

dSnec 

furor  (art) 

limen 

amarus 

ciavus 

dfinum 

gleba 

limes 

anclle 

clemens 

duco 

gloria 

llnum 

anhelus 

cllvus 

dudum 

gram  en 

llveo 

antlquus 

C6dex 

durus 

gratus 

lorum 

ara 

comis 

extremus 

hamus 

Iud6 

area 

comO 

fagus 

heres 

lugea 

area 

Conor 

fama 

heros 

lumen 

ater 

conus 

fanum 

hora 

lima 

avOna 

copia 

fan 

Ic6 

malO 

bills 

coram 

fecundus 

imago 

mane 

bruma 

corona 

fellx 

inams 

manes 

bftb6 

cratfer 

femina 

Ira 

manf) 

cacumen 

crates 

fetus 

janua 

mater 

cfillgo 

creber 

fldo 

jucundus 

maturud 

camlnus 

credo 

ftgo 

iflro 

meta 

oanus 

crinis 

flfius 

labor  (i) 

metior 

caper 

crudus 

fllum 

lamentum 

miles 

carlna 

cura 

*    finis 

lana 

mlror 

carus 

curia 

flavus 

latus  (a,  um) 

mitis 

cede  (ere) 

debeo 

flumen 

I6g6  (are) 

moles 

Including  a  few  derivatives  and  compounds 


VERSIFICATION. 


349 


miigeo 

munio 

munus 

murus 

i  au.- a 

inuto 

mutus 

naris 

navis 

nidus 

nitor  (1) 

nodus 

DODUS 

nubes 

nubo 

nudus 

nuto 

olim 

omen 

opAcus 

oplmus 

ora 

6ro 


otium 

pagus 

pal  or 

pan  is 

pa  re  6 

penates 

perltus 

pilum 

piu  us 

planus 

plenus 

pluma 

poeta 

pom  urn 

pone 

pono 

poto 

pratum 

pravus 

primus 

pnvus 

prom  6 

prora 


puber 

sedo 

punio 

sere°nus 

purus 

serus 

qualis 

sido 

radix 

sincerus 

rado 

solor 

ramus 

solus 

rarus 

soplo 

remus 

spica 

rideo 

spina 

ripa 

spiro 

rltus 

spuma 

rivus 

squaleo 

robu* 

stlpo 

rodo 

strages 

ruga 

strenuus 

rumor 

strldeo 

rupee 

sudo 

sanus 

tabes 

sea  lac 

talis 

8crTb6 

telum 

scutum 

temS 

sedes 

^  

tibia 

totus 

trudo 

uber 

udus 

umeo 

UDUS 

uro 

Qtor 

uva 

uvidus 

vado 

vanus 

vates 

velox 

velum 

vena 

veiienum 

venor 

verus 

vilis 

vluum 

Vivo 


CHAPTER    II. 
VERSIFICATION. 


SECTION    I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

596.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  QUANTITY.  Syllables 
are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups  called  Feet,  and  feet, 
singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into  Verses.1 

1.  Tn  quantity  or  time  the  unit  of  measure  is  the  short  syllaMe,  indicated 
either  by  a  curve  w  or  by  nn  eighth  note  in  music,  ^ .  A  long  syllable 

1  Modern  versification  is  based  upon  ACCENT.  An  English  verse  I-  a  regular  com- 
bination of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  but  a  Latin  verse  is  a  similar  combina- 
tion of  long  and  xhorf  syllable?.  The  rhythmic  accent  or  ictus  (599)in  Latin  depends 
entirely  upon  quantity.  Compare  the  following  linen  : 

monm'-ful 
emp'-ty 


Tell'  me 
Life'  i» 


not',  in 
but'  an 


TrO'-di 
At'  fl- 


mim'-bers, 
dream'. 


tnr'  di-  Ss'  di- 

dSs'  et  in'-ge-  nl'. 

Observe  that  In  the  English  lines  the  accent  or  ictus  falls  upon  the  same  syllables  as 
in  prose,  while  in  the  Latin  it  falls  uniformly  upon  lonir  syllable's  On  Lat'n  Vfrxi.ft- 
cation.  see  Ramsay's  '  Latin  Prosody  ';  Schmidt's  •  Rhythmik  mid  Metrik.'  translated 
by  Professor  White  ;  Christ's  '  Metrik.' 


350  METRICAL  FEET. 

has  in  general  twice  the  value  of  a  short  syllable,1  and  is  indicated  either 
by  the  sign  — ,  or  by  a  quarter  note  in  music,  J.  This  unit  of  measure  is 
also  called  a  time  or  mora. 

NOTE  1. — A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  prolonged  so  as  to  have  the  value 
(1)  of  three  short  syllables,  indicated  by  the  sign  i— ,  orj^  ;  or  (2)  of  fcnir 
short  syllables,  indicated  by  i— > ,  or  ! . 

NOTE  2. — A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  shortened  so  as  to  have  the  value 
of  a  short  syllable,  indicated  by  the  sign  >,  <,r  J\  A  syllable  thus  used 
is  said  to  have  irrational  time. 

597.  The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 
poets  are — 

I.  FEET  OF  FOUR  TIMES  OF  FOUR  MORAE. 

Dactyl,        one  long  and  two  short,        —  *-*  -^      I  J*J*       carinina. 
Spondee,      two  long  syllables,  I     I  leges. 

II.  FEET  OF  THREE  TIMES  OR  THREE  MORAE. 
Trochee,8     one  long  and  one  short,  J     t*  legis. 

Iambus,       one  short  and  one  long,          ^  —  h  I  parens. 

Tribrach,    three  short  syllables,  ^  *~>  ^      f*   r*  J*       dominus. 

NOTE  1.— To  these  may  be  added  the  following: 


Pyrrhic,  —  -~-  pater. 

Anapaest,  ~  ^  —  bonitas. 

JJaeclnus, dolores. 

Cretic,  —  ^  —  milites. 

Diiainbus, amoenitas. 


Ditrochee,         —  «-»  —  —  clvitatis. 

Dispoiidee,  praeceptores. 

Greater  Ionic, •  —  —  sententia. 

Lesser  Ionic,     —  — adolescens. 

Choi-iambus, ~  —  impatiens.3 


NOTE  2. — A  Dipody  is  a  group  of  two  feet ;  a  Tripody,  of  three  feet ;  a  Tetrapody  of 
four,  etc.  A  Trihemimeris  is  a  group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a  foot  and  a  half;  a  Pen- 
themimeris,  of  two  and  a  half ;  a  Hephthemimeris,  of  three  and  a  half,  etc. 

598.  METRICAL  EQUIVALENTS. — A  long  syllable  may  be  re- 
solved into  two  short  syllables,  as  equivalent  to  it  in  quantity,  or 
two  short  syllables  may  be  contracted  into  a  long  syllable.  The 
forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents  of  the  original  feet. 

NOTE.—  Thus  the  Dactyl  becomes  a  Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables 
into  one  long  sylb  Die ;  the  Spondee  becomes  a  Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllable, 
or  an  Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first.  Accordingly,  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  tho 
Anapaest  are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 

1  See  foot-note  1,  p.  349. 

2  Sometimes  called  Choree. 

3  The  feet  here  mentioned  as  having  four  syllables  are  only  compounds  of  disyllabic 
feet.     Thus  the  Diiambus  is  a  double  Iambus ;  the  Ditrocliee,  a  double  Trochee  ;  the 
Dispondee,  a  double  Spondee  ;  the  Greater  Ionic,  a  Spondee  and  a  Pyrrhic  ;  the  Lesser 
Ionic,  a  Pyrrhic  and  a  Spondee ;  the  Ckoriambus,  a  Trochee  (Choree)  and  an  Iambus. 


ICTUS.— ARSIS  AND    THESIS.—  VMRSES.  351 

1.  Its  certain  kinds  of  verse  admitting  irrational  time  (596,  1,  note  2), 
Spondees,  Dactyls,  and  Anapaests  are  shortened  to  the  time  of  a  Trochee  or 
of  an  Iambus,  and  thus  become  metrical  equivalents  of  each  of  these  feet. 

1)  A  Spondee  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  an  IRRATIONAL  TKOCHEE,  and  is 
marked  —  >. 

2)  A  Spondee  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  an  IRRATIONAL  IAMBUS,  and  ie 
marked  >  — . 

3)  A  Dactyl  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  a  CYCLIC  DACTYL,  and  is  marked 

4)  An  Anapaest  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  a  CYCLIC  ANAPAEST,  and  is 
marked  w  w~. 

599.  ICTUS  OK  RHYTHMIC  ACCENT. — As  in  the  pronunciation  of 
a  word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called 
accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  of  a  metrical  foot  one  or  more  syl- 
lables receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or 
Ictus. 

1.  Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have  the  ictus  uniform- 
ly on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  as  equivalents  for  other  feet 

NOTE.— Thus  the  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable;  the 
Anapaest  and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  EQUIVALENTS  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for  which  they  are  used. 

NOTE  1. — Thus  the  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Dactyl 
— i.  e.,  on  the  first  syllable ;  but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the 
Anapaest— i.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

NOTE  2. — Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
aied  as  equivalents,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

NOTE  8.— When  two  short  syllables  of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented 
•ong  syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus  properly  belongs  to  both  of  these  syllables,  but 
'•  marked  upon  the  first.  Thus  a  Tribrach  used  for  an  Iambus  is  marked  <->  \l»  *-;. 

600.  ARSIS  AND  THESIS. — The  accented  part  of  each  foot  is 
called  the  Arsis  (raising),  and  the  unaccented  part,  the  Thesis 
(lowering)* 

601.  VERSES. — A  verse  is  a  line  of  poetry  (596).     It  has  one 
characteristic  or  fundamental  foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for 
the  whole  verse. 

NOTE  1.— Thus  every  dactylic  verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  of  each  foot 
because  the  Dactyl  has  the  ictus  on  that  syllable. 

1  Greek  writers  on  versification  originally  used  the  terms  dpo-t?  and  W<ri«  of  raising 
and  putting  dmcn  the  foot  in  marching  or  in  beating  time.  Thus  the  Thesis  was  the 
accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  Arsis  the  unaccented  part.  The  Romans,  however,  ap 
plied  the  terms  to  raising  and  lowering  the  voice  in  reading.  Thus  Arsis  came  to 
mean  the  accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  Thesis  the  unaccented  part.  The  terms  hnv.-< 
now  been  so  long  and  so  generally  used  in  this  sense  that  it  is  uot  deemed  advisable  t 
Ktenapt  to  restore  them  to  their  original 


35^  NAMES   OF    VERSES. 

NOTB  2. — Two  verses  sometimes  unite  and  form  a  compound  verse ;  see  628,  X 
NOTB  8. — Metre  means  measure,  and  is  variously  used,  sometimes  designating  tin. 
neavure  or  quantity  of  syllables,  and  sometimes  the  foot  or  measure  '  of  a  verse. 

602.  CAESURA  OR  CAESURAL  PAUSE. — Most  Latin  verses  are 
divided   metrically  into  two   nearly  equal  parts,   each  of  which 
forms  a  rhythmic  series.     The  pause,  however  slight,  which  nat- 
urally separates  these  parts  is  called — • 

1.  A  Caesura,*  or  a  Ca^sural  Pause,  when  it  occurs  within  a  foot  •, 
see  611. 

2.  A  Diaeresis,  when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  foot;  see  611,  2 
and  3. 

NOTE.— Some  verses  consist  of  three  parts  thus  separated  by  caesura  or  diaeresis, 
while  some  consist  of  a  single  rhythmic  series.' 

603.  The  full  metrical  name  of  a  verse  consists  of  three  parts. 
The  first  designates  the  characteristic  foot,  the  second  gives  the 
number  of  feet  or  measures,  and  the  third  shows  whether  the  verse 
is  complete  or  incomplete.     Thus — 

1.  A  Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalectlc  is  a  dactylic  verso  of  six  feet  (Jlexa- 
mtter),  all  of  which  are  complete  (Acatalectic). 

2.  A  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic^  is  a  trochaic  verse  of  two  measures 
(Dimeter),  the  last  of  which  is  incomplete  (Catalectic). 

NOTE  1.— A  verse  with  a  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot  is  called  Dactylic  ;  with  a 
Trochee,  Trochaic;  with  an  Iambus,  Iambic,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— A  verse  consisting  of  one  measure  is  called  Monometer ;  of  two,  Dimeter; 
of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four,  Tetrameter;  of  five,  Pentameter;  of  six,  Hexameter. 

NOTE  3. — A  verse  which  closes  with  a  complete  measure  is  called  Acatalectic;  4  with 
an  incomplete  measure,  Catalectic;  4  with  an  excess  of  syllables,  Hypermetrical.* 

NOTE  4.— The  term  Acatalectic  is  often  omitted,  as  a  verse  may  be  assumed  to  be 
complete  unless  the  opposite  is  stated. 

NOTE  &.— A  Catalectic  verse  is  said  to  be  Catalectic  in  syllabam,  in  disi/llabnm,  01 
i >i  trisyllabum,  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables. 

NOTE  6.— Verses  are  sometimes  briefly  designated  by  the  number  of  feet  or  measure) 
which  they  contain.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dactylic 
Hexameter  Acatalectic,  and  Senarius  (six  feet),  the  Iambic  Trimeter  Acatalectic. 

604.  Verses  are  often  designated  by  names  derived  from  cele- 
brated p^ets. 

NOTE  1. — Thus  Alcaic  is  derived  from  Alcaeus;  Archilochian,  from  Archilochm ; 
Sapphic,  from  Sappho  ;  Glyconie,  from  Glycon,  etc. 

1  In  dactylic  verses  a  measure  is  a  single  foot,  but  in  trochaic  and  iambic  verses  it 
is  a  dipody  or  a  pair  of  feet. 

*  Caesura  (from  caedo,  to  cut)  means  a  cutting ;  it  cuts  or  divides  the  foot  and  the 
rerse  Into  parts. 

*  A  yerse  consisting  of  a  single  series  is  called  Monocolon  ;  of  two,  Dicolon ;  at 
three,  Tricolon. 

*  From  the  Greek  dxaToArjicTos,  *aTaATi<rTuc.k, 


Fl GURUS   OF  PROSODY.  353 

NOTE  2. —Verses  sometimes  receive  a  name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  the} 
were  applied  :  as  Heroic,  applied  to  heroic  subjects;  I'aroemiac,  to  proverbs,  etc. 

605.  The  FINAL  SYLLABLE  of  a  verse  may  generally  be  either 
long  or  short  at  the  pleasure  of  the  poet. 

606.  A  STANZA  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  verses  of  dif- 
ferent metres  into  one  metrical  whole  ;  see  631. 

NOTE.— A  stanza  of  two  lines  or  verses  is  called  A  Distich ;  of  three,  a  Tristich ;  of 
Sour,  a  Tetrastich. 

607.  RHYTHMICAL  READING. — In  reading  Latin  verse  care  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  words  unbroken,  to  show  the  quantity  of 
the  syllables,  and  to  mark  the  poetical  ictus. 

Nor*. — Scanning  consists  in  separating  a  poem  or  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
oomposed.  * 

608.  FIGURES  OF  PROSODY. — The  ancient  poets  sometimes  al- 
lowed themselves,  in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liber 
ties  generally  termed  Figures  of  Prosody. 

I.  ELISION.— A  final  vowel,  a  final  diphthong,  or  a  final  m  with  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  is  generally  elided  *  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel 
or  with  h : 

Monstr0™  horrendum  Inferm*  ingens,  for  Monstrum  horrendum  InfOrme 
ingens.  Verg. 

NOTK  1. — For  Exception*,  Bee  ffiatv-a,  II.,  below. 

NOTTS  2. — Final  t  in  the  interrogative  tie  is  sometimes  dropped  before  *  consonant : 

Pyrrhln'  connQbla  servas?  for  I'yrrlrine  connubia  serves?  Verg, 

NOTE  8.— In  the  early  poets  final  a  is  olten  dropped  before  consonant*  • 

Ex  omnibu'  r6bus,/or  ex  omnibus  r^bus.  Liter 

NOTI  4.— The  elision  of  *  final  //<  with  the  preceding  rowel  it  sometimes  called 
EcttMpsis.3 

NOTE  5.— The  elision  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  or  of  a  final  m  with  the  preceding 
rowel,  Is  sometimes  called  Synaloepha,3  or,  if  at  the  end  of  a  line,  Synapheia.* 

II.  HIATUS. — A  final  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  retained  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel.     Thus — 

1.  The  interjections  0,  heu,  and  prO  are  not  elided;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  X., 
18;  Geor.,  II.,  486. 

2.  Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  sometimes  retained,  especially  in  tho 
\rsis  of  a  foot;  see  Verg.,  EC.,  III.,  6;  VII.,  52. 

>  In  school  this  is  sometimes  done  In  a  purely  mechanical  way,  sacrificing  words  to 
feet;  but  even  this  mechanical  process  is  often  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  it  makes  hluj 
familiar  with  the  poetical  ictns. 

*  That  Is.  partially  xupjtretKed.    In  reading,  it  should  be  lightly  and  tadiatinctl 
•oonded,  and  blended  with  the  following  syllable,  as  in  English  poetry  • 

"  Th<-  eternal  Tears  of  God  are  hers." 

*  From  the  Greek  «K0AiJ/i«,  crvyaAoi4»j,  au<i  o-vvd^tt* 


354  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

NOTE  1.—  This  is  most  common  in  proper  names. 

NOTE  2.  —  Vergil  employs  this  form  of  hiatus  more  freely  than  the  other  Latin  po*»t& 
»nd  yet  the  entire  Aeneid  furnishes  only  a  short  list  of  examples. 

NOTE  3.  —  In  the  thesis  a  final  long  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  shortened  befor* 
»  short  Towel  instead  of  being  elided  ;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  111.,  211  ;  VI.,  507. 

SOTE  4.  —  Hiatus  with  a  short  final  vowel  is  rare,  but  occurs  even  in  Vergil  ;  see  Aen.. 
T.,  405;  EC.,  II.,  58. 

III.  SYNAERESIS.  —  Two  syllables  are  sometimes  contracted  into  one  : 
aurea,  deTnde,  dSmceps,  ndeia,  Jisdem,  eaedem,  prohibeat  (pronounced 


NOTE  1.  —  In  the  different  parts  of  desum,  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  syllable: 
deesse,  deest,  deerat,  deerit,  etc.  ;  so  e>i  in  the  verb  anteed  :  cmtelre,  anteirem,  anteis, 
anteit. 

NOTE  2.  —  /and  u  before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the  sound  of 
yand  «'.  Thus  abiete  and  ariete  become  abyet*  and  ari/cte;  genua  and  tenuft  be- 
come genwa  and  tenwes. 

NOTE  3.—  In  Plautus  and  Terence,  Synatrem*  is  used  with  great  freedom. 

NOTE  4.—  The  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one  is  sometimes  called  Synietsis. 

IV.  DIAERESIS.  —  In  poetry,  two  syllables  usually  contracted  into  one 
are  sometimes  retained  distinct  : 

ftural  for  aurae,  Orpheus  for  Orpheus,  soluendus/or  solvendus,  silua/jr 
silva. 

NOTE.—  Diaeresis  properly  means  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into  two,  but  the 
Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  make  two  syllables  out  of  one.  The  examples  gen. 
erally  explained  by  diaeresis  are  only  ancient  forms,  used  for  effect  or  convenience. 

V.  DIASTOLE.  —  A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long,  especially 
in  the  arsis  of  a  foot  : 

PriamidSsyb?'  Priamides. 

NOTE  1.  —  This  poetic  license  occurs  chiefly  in  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables. 
NOTE  2.  —  Vergil  uses  this  license  quite  freely.    He  lengthens  g««in  sixteen  instances. 

VI.  SYSTOLE.  —  A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short  : 

tulerunt  for  tulerunt,  steterunt  for  steterunt  (236,  note),  vide'n  far 
videsne. 

Nor*.—  This  poetic  license  occurs  most  frequently  In  final  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

VII.  SYNCOPE.  —  An  entire  foot  is  sometimes  occupied  by  a  single  long 
syllable  ;  see  614. 

SECTION  n. 

VARIETIES    OF    VERSE. 

I.  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETEK. 

609.  All  Dactylic  Verses  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical 
equivalents,  Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 


DACTYLHJ  HEXAMETER.  355 

610.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  '  consists  of  six  feet.  The  first 
four  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a  Dactyl,  and  the 
sixth  a  Spondee  (60S).2  The  scale  is,3 


Quadrupe-  |  dante  pu-  |  trem  soni-  |  tu  quatit  I  ungula  |  campum.  Verg. 
Anna  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no  Tro-  |  jae  qul  '  primus  ab  |  orls.    Verg. 
Infan-  j  dum  re-  |  gma  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.    Verg. 
IllI  5  in-  |  ter  se-  |  se  mag-  |  na  vi  |  bracchia  |  tollunt.    Verg.6 

1.  The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  admits  sixteen  varieties,  produced  by 
varying  the  relative  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spondees.   Thus 
a  verse  may  contain  — 

1)  Five  Dactyls  and  one  Spondee,  as  in  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  Dactyls  and  two  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

3)  Three  Dactyls  and  three  Spondees,  admitting  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  Dactyls  and  four  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 
6)  One  Dactyl  and  five  Spondees,  as  in  the  fourth  example. 

2.  EFFECT  OF  DACTYLS.  —  Dactyls  produce  a  rapid  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.    Spondees  produce  a  slow  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.    But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive lines  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spon- 
dees. 

3.  SPOKDAIO  LINK.  —  The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a  Spondee  in  the 


1  This  Is  at  once  the  most  important  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man metres.  In  Greece  it  attained  its  perfection  in  the  poems  of  Homer.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy  in  a  somewhat  imperfect  form  by  the  poet  Ennlus  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  before  Christ;  but  it  was  improved  by  Lucretius,  Catullus,  and  oth- 
ers, until  It  attained  great  excellence  in  the  works  of  the  Augustan  poets.  The  most 
beautiful  and  finished  Latin  Hexameters  are  found  in  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Vergil. 

*  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  In  Latin  is  here  treated  as  Acatalectic,  as  the  Latin  poets 
•eem  to  have  regarded  the  last  foot  as  a  genuine  Spondee,  thus  making  the  measure 
complete.    See  Christ,  'Metrik  der  Grlcchen  und  Reiner,1  pp.  110,  164. 

*  In  this  scale  the  sign  '  marks  the  ictus  (590),  and  _  c^c/  denotes  that  the  original 
Dactyl,  marked  —  ^  ^,  may  become  by  contraction  a  Spondee,  marked  —  •  —  -  L  •.,  that  • 
Spondee  may  be  used  for  a  Dactyl  (598). 

4  Expressed  in  musical  characters,  this  scale  is  as  follows  . 


The  notation  J  *J  means  that,  instcui  at  the  original  measure  J  JJ,  the  »i'iir 

•lent  J  J  may  be  used. 

•  The  final  I  of  ////  Is  elided;  see  6O8,  1. 

•  With  these  lines  of  Ve/gil  compare  the  following  Hexameters  from  the  Evangelic* 
if  Longfellow  : 

"This  is  the  forest  primeval  ;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
Leaped  like  the  roc,  when  he  bean  in  the  woodland  the  voice  of  the  huntsman  T" 


356  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

fifth  place.     It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a  Dactyl  as  its 
fourth  foot : 

Cara  de-  |  urn  sobo-  |  les  mag- 1  num  Jovis  |  incre-  |  mentum.    Verg. 

NOTE.— In  Vergil,  spondaic  lines  are  used  much  more  sparingly  than  in  the  earlier 
poets, ]  and  generally  end  in  words  of  three  or  four  syllables,  as  in  incrementum  above.''' 

611.  CAESURA,  OR  CAESURAL  PAUSE. --The  favorite  caesural 
pause  of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  of  the 
third  foot  :  * 

Anna-  |  tl  ten-  |  dunt ;  ||  it  |  clamor  et  |  agmine  |  facto.  Verg. 
Infan-  |  dura,  re-  |  tana,  ||  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.   Verg. 

NOTE. — In  the  first  line,  the  caesural  pause,  marked  II ,  is  after  tendunt,  after  the 
arsis  of  the  third  foot ;  and  in  the  second  line  after  rtrfina,  in  the  thesis  (naju)  of 
the  third  foot.  The  former  is  called  the  Masculine  Caesura,  the  latter  the  Feminine 
Caesura.4 

1.  The  CAESURAL  PAUSE  is  sometimes  in  the  fourth  foot,  and  then  an  ad- 
ditional pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second  : 

Credide-  |  rim;  II  ver  |  illud  e-  |  rat,  II  ver  |  magnus  a-  |  gebat.    Verg. 

2.  BUCOLIC  DIAERESIS. — A  pause  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis,6  because 
originally  used  in  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes  occurs  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  foot : 

Ingen-  |  tern  cae-  |  16  soni-  |  turn  dedit  ;ll  inde  se-  |  cutus.   Very. 

NOTE.— The  Bucolic  Diaeresis  was  avoided  by  the  best  Latin  poets,  even  in  treat- 
ing pastoral  subjects.  Vergil,  even  in  his  Bucolics,  uses  it  very  sparingly. 

3.  A  DIAERESIS  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  without  any  proper  caesural 
pause  is  regarded  as  a  blemish  in  the  verse  : 

Pulveru-  |  lentus  e-  |  quis  furit ;  llomnes  |  arma  re-  |  qulrunt.   Verg. 

1  A  single  poem  of  Catullus,  about  half  as  long  as  a  book  of  the  Aeneid,  contains 
more  spondaic  lines  than  all  the  works  of  Vergil. 

"  But  Vergil  has  two  spondaic  lines  ending  et  magnvs  (fix  ;  see  Aen.,  III.,  12,  and 
VIII.,  679. 

3  That  is,  the  hrst  rhythmic  series  ends  at  this  point.    This  pause  is  always  at  the 
2nd  of  a  word,  and  may  be  so  very  slight  as  in  most  cases  not  to  interfere  with  the 
sense,  even  if  no  mark  of  punctuation  is  required  ;    but  the  best  verses  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  caesural  pause  coincides  with  a  pause  in  the  sense  ;   see  Christ, 
'  Metrik,'  p.  184.    According  to  r-ome  writers,  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  had  its  origin 
in  the  union  of  two  earlier  dactylic  verses,  and  the  caesural  pause  now  marks  the 
point  of  union  ;  see  Christ,  p.  173. 

4  The  Masculine  Caesura  is  also  called  the  Strong,  or  the  Syllabic,  Caesura,  the 
Feminine  the  Weak,  or  the  Trochaic,  Caesura.    Caesuras  are  often  named  from  the 
place  which  they  occupy  in  the  line.     Thus  a  caesura  after  the  arsis  of  the  second 
foot  is  called  Trihemimeral  ;  after  the  arsis  of  the  thirdv  Punltixinimeral ;  afterthe 
arsis  of  the  fourth,  Hephthemimeral. 

6  Aleo  called  the  Bucolic  Caesura,  as  the  term  caesura  is  often  made  to  include 
diaeresis. 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER.  35? 

4.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  always  produces  a  caesura.    A  line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only  one  of  these  is 
marked  by  any  perceptible  pause  : 

Arma  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no,  ll  Tro-  |  jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  orls.  Verg. 

NOTE.— Here  there  is  a  caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one  of  these, 
that  after  cand,  in  the  third  foot,  has  the  caesura!  pause. ' 

5.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  in 
every  hexameter.     A  line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme : 

Romae  |  moeuia  |  terruit  |  impiger  |  Hannibal  |  armls.  EMI. 

NOTE  1.— The  Pent/iemimeral a  caesura  has  great  power  to  impart  melody  to  the 
verse,  but  the  best  effect  is  produced  when  it  is  aided  by  other  caesuras,  as  above. 
NOTE  2.— A  happy  effect  is  often  produced— 

1)  By  combining  the  feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot  with  the  hephthemimeral 
and  the  trlhemimeral  : 

DOnec  e- 1  ris  fC- 1  llx,  ||  mul- 1  tOs  nnme- 1  rabis  a-  |  mlcos.  Verg. 

2)  By  combining  the  Itephthemlmeral  with  the  trihemimtral  : 

Inde  to- 1  ro  pater  |  Aen5- 1  fts  sic  j  Orsus  ab  |  alto.  Verg. 

NOTB  3.  —The  union  of  the  feminine  caesura  with  the  trikemimeral,  common  in 
Greek,  is  somewhat  rare  in  Latin,  bat  it  sometimes  produces  an  harmonious  verse  : 

Prat'cipi- 1  tat,  sna- 1  dentque  ca- 1  dentia  |  sldera  I  somnos.  Very. 
NOTE  4. — In  the  last  two  feet  of  the  verse  there  should  in  general  be  no  caesuru 
whatever,  unless  it  falls  in  the  thesis  of  the  fifth  foot ;  but  when  that  foot  contain!- 
two  entire  words,  a  caesura  is  admissible  after  the  arsis. 

612.  The  ictus  often  falls  upon  unaccented  syllables.     Thus — 

1.  In  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  feet  of  the  verse  it  falls  some- 
times upon  accented  and  sometimes  upon  unaccented  syllables  ;  see 
examples  under  610. 

2.  In  the  third  foot  it  generally  falls  upon  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble ;  see  examples  under  610. 

3.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  feet  it  generally  falls  upon  accented  syl- 
lables ;  see  examples  under  610. 

613.  The  LAST  WORD  OF  THE  HKXAMETER  is  generally  either 
a  dissyllable  or  a  trisyllable  ;  see  examples  under  610  and  611.* 


1  The  caesura  with  the  pause  is  variously  called  the  chief  caetotra,  the  caesura  of 
the  verse,  the  caesura  of  tfte  rhythm,  etc.  In  distinction  from  this  any  other  caesura 
may  be  called  a  caexura,  a  caenuraofthefoot,  or  a  minor  caesura. 

a  See  p.  850,  foot-note  4. 

3  The  learner  should  be  informed  that  the  niceties  of  structure  which  belong  to  fin 
ished  Latin  hexameters  must  be  sought  only  in  the  poems  of  Vergil  and  Ovid.  The 
happiest  disposition  of  caesuras,  the  best  adjustment  of  the  poetical  ictus  to  the  prose 
accent,  and  the  most  approved  structure  in  the  closing  measures  of  the  verse,  can  not  be 
expected  in  the  rude  numbers  of  Kim  ins.  in  the  scientific  discussions  of  Lucretius,  or 
even  in  the  familiar  Satires  of  Horace.  Those  interested  in  the  pocilliaritles  of  Latin 
hexameters  in  different  writers  will  find  a  discussion  of  tlit-Kiibjert.  in  I.iiriim  Mlillcr'a 
work.'  De  rG  metrics  poGtHrum  LutTnormn  praeter  Plautuin  ctTcrciitiiim  lilirl  septem.' 


858  DACTYL.1U    VERSE 

Note  1.  —  Spondaic  lines  are  exceptions;  see  61O,  8,  not*. 

NOTE  2.  —  Two  monosyllables  at  the  end  of  a  line  are  not  particularly  objeotionabl* 
and  sometimes  eren  product'  a  happy  effect  : 

Praecipi-  |  tant  cu-  |  rae,  II  tur-  |  bataque  |  funere  |  mOns  est.  /erg. 

NOTE  3.  —  Est,  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  monosyllable,  may  stand  at  the 
and  of  a  line. 

NOTE  4.  —  A  single  monosyllable,  except  est,  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor: 

Prrturi-  |  unt  mon-  |  tes,  ||  nas-  |  cetur  |  ridicu-  |  lus  mns.  ffor. 

NOTB  5.  —  In  Vergil,  twenty-one  lines,  apparently  hypermetrical  (6O3,  note  8),  art 
supposed  to  elide  a  final  vowel  or  a  final  em  or  urn  before  the  initial  vowel  of  the  next 
Hue  ;  see  Aen.,  L,  882  ;  Geor.,  I.,  295.  See  also  6O8,  1.,  note  5. 

II.  OTHER  DACTYLIC  VERSES. 

614.  DACTYLIC  PENTAMETER.*  —  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  con- 
sists of  two  parts  separated  by  a  diaeresis.  Each  part  consists  of 
two  Dactyls  and  a  long  syllable.  The  Spondee  may  take  the  place 
of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second  : 


Admoni-  |  tu  coe-  |  pi  1  1  fortior  |  esse  tu-  (  0.   Ovid. 

615.  ELEGIAC  DISTICH.  —  The  Elegiac  Distich  consists  of  the 
Hexameter  followed  by  the  Pentameter  : 

Semise  |  pulta  vi-  |  rum  1  1  cur-  |  vis  feri-  |  untur  a-  |  ratrlB 
Ossa,  ru-  |  Ind-  |  sas  1  1  occulit  |  herba  do-  |  mus.  Ovid. 

NOTB  1.  —  In  reading  the  Elegiac  Distich,  the  Pentameter,  including  pauses,  should 
of  course  occupy  the  same  time  as  the  Hexameter. 

NOTE  2.  —  Elegaic  composition  should  be  characterized  by  grace  and  elegance.  Both 
members  of  the  distich  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  most  rigid  rules  of 
metre.  The  sense  should  be  complete  at  the  end  of  the  couplet.  Ovid  furnishes  us  the 
best  specimens  of  this  style  of  composition. 

616.  The  DACTYLIC  TETRAMETER  is  identical  with  the  last  four 
feet  of  the  Hexameter  : 

Ibimus  |  0  soci-  1  1,  oomi-  |  tesque.  ffor. 

1  The  name  Pentameter  is  founded  on  the  ancient  division  of  the  line  into  five  feet. 
consisting  of  two  Dactyls,  or  Spondees,  a  Spondee  and  two  Anapaests. 

a  Thus  in  reading,  a  pause  may  be  introduced  after  the  long  syllable  in  the  third  foot, 
or  that  syllable  may  be  prolonged  to  fill  out  the  measure.  A  pause  or  rest  equal  to  a 
short  syllabi'  is  marked  A  ;  a  pause  equal  to  a  long  syllable,  A  . 

In  musical  characters  the  scale  of  this  verse  is  as  follows  : 


JrQ  ..I       |JJ3  JJ3J 


TROCHAIC   VERSE.  359 

NOT*.— In  compound  verses,  as  In  the  Greater  Architochlan,  the  tetrameter  in 
imposition  with  other  metres  has  a  Dactyl  in  the  fourth  place;  see  628,  X. 

617.  The  DACTYLIC  TRIMETER  CATALECTIC  is  identical  with 
the  second  half  of  the  Dactylic  Pentameter : 

Arbori-  |  busque  co-  |  mae.  Hor. 
Nor*.— The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  also  known  as  the  Lester  ArchilocMan. 

HI.  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

618.  The  TROCHAIC  DIPODY,  the  measure  in  Trochaic  verse,1 
consists  of  two  Trochees,  the  second  of  which  is  sometimes  irra- 
tional (598,  1,  1) )— i.  e.,  it  hasthe/wm  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time 

of  a  Trochee  :  ,    k  ,    K 

^-*-b    or     JJ*J/ 

Nor*  1.— By  the  ordinary  law  of  equivalents  (598),  a  Tribrach  ^i>  *->  *~>  may  take  the 
place  of  the  Trochee  •*-  <-/,  and  an  apparent  Anapaest  *£»  w  >  the  place  of  the  Irrational 
Trochee  -*-  >  .a  In  proper  names  a  cyclic  Dactyl  -A^  ^  (598,  1,8))  may  occur  in  either 
foot. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  Trochaic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

NOTE  8.— A  syllable  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  a  Trochaic  verse.  A  syllable  thus  used 
la  called  Anacrusis  (upward  beat),  and  is  separated  from  the  following  measure  by  the 
mark  •  . 

619.  The  TROCHAIC  DIMETER  CATALECTIC  consists  of  two  Tro- 
chaic Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.     In  Horace  it  admits 
no  equivalents,  and  has  the  following  scale  : 

-«•%-.  -^  l-^-w* 
Aula  dlvi-  |  tern  manet.  Hor, 

NOTE.— A  Trochaic  Trvpody  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochlan ;  »e«  628,  X. 
1.  The  Alcaic  Enneasyllabic  verse  which  forms  the  third  line  in  the  Al- 
caic stanza  is  a  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis: 

>    :  j.^,-t\-L^~^ 
Pu-  •  er  quis  ex  au-  |  la  capillls.  Hor. 

620.  The  TROCHAIC  TETRAMETER  CATALECTIC  consists  of  four 
Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.     There  is  a  diae- 
resis (002,  2)  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody 
admits  no  equivalents : 

•*w-fc|-«-w-&!|-tw-&|-tw«A.» 

Primus  ad  ci-  |  bum  vocatur,  1 1  prlmO  pulmen-  |  turn  datur.  Plaut. 

1  See  6O1,  note  8,  with  foot-note. 

9  Thus  in  the  second  foot  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  the  poet  may  use  a  Trochee,  a  Tribrach, 
t  Spondee,  or  an  Anapaest ;  but  the  Spondee  and  the  Anapaest  are  pronounced  in  UM 
i»rne  time  as  the  Trochee  or  the  Tribrach — i.  e.,  they  have  irrational  tim«. 

'  Only  the  leading  ictus  of  each  dipody  is  here  mtrked 


360  IAMBIC   VERSE. 

NOTB  1.  —  This  Is  simply  the  union  of  two  Trochaic  Dimeters,  the  first  acatalectie 
tnd  the  second  cataleetic,  separated  by  diaeresis.1 

NOTE  2.—  In  Latin  this  verse  is  used  chiefly  in  comedy,  and  accordingly  admits  great 
licence  in  the  use  of  feet.  The  Irrational  Trochee  (598,  1,  1)  )  and  its  equivalents  may 
occur  in  any  foot  except  in  the  last  dipody. 

NOTB  8.—  The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets  : 
Ipae  rammls  |  sans  fixus  il  aspens  6-  1  viaceratus.  Enn. 

IV.  IAMBIC  VERSE. 

621.  The  IAMBIC  DIPODY,  the  measure  of  Iambic  verse,  consists 
of  two  Iambi,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  irrational  (598,  1,2)) 
—  i.  e.,  it  has  the  form  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time  of  an  Iambus  : 


NOTE  1.—  The  Tribrach  tor  the  Iambus,  and  the  Dactyl  »  or  Anapaest  *  for  the  Irra- 
tional Iambus,  are  rare,  except  in  comedy. 

NOTE  2.—  In  the  Ionic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

622.  The  IAMBIC  TRIMETER,  also  called  Senarius,  consists  of 
three  Iambic  Dipodies.  The  Caesura  is  usually  in  the  third  foot, 
but  may  be  in  the  fourth  : 

&-<-v^-|e,-«-w-|£-*-~** 

Quid  obsera-  |  tls  ||  auribus  |  fundis  preces?  HOT. 
Neptunus  al-  |  to  1  1  tundit  hi-  |  bernus  salo.  ffor. 
Has  inter  epu-  |  las  1  1  ut  juvat  j  pastas  oves.  ffor.* 

1.  In  PROPER  NAKES,  a  Cyclic  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  any  foot  excep* 
the  last,  but  must  be  in  a  single  word. 

2.  In  HORACE  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  tjie  Iambus  and  the  Spon 
dee  ;  their  equivalents,  tiie  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Anapaest,  are  used 
very  sparingly.     The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only  once 
in  the  first.    The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

3.  In  COMEDY  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalent* 
are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


1  Compare  the  corresponding  English  measure,  in  which  the  two  parts  appear  as 
teparate  lines ;  u  Llveg,  of  great  men  (  a),,  remlnd  U8 

We'  can  make  our  |  lives'  sublime, 
And',  departing,  |  leave'  behind  us 

Foot'prints  on  the  |  sands'  of  time." 

1  The  Dactyl  thus  used  has  the  time  of  an  Iambus  and  is  marked  >  vi.  \^\  the  Ana- 
paest is  cyclic  (598,  1,  4),  marked  ^  ^-^-. 

*  This  same  scale,  divided  thus,   ^,  j  -£-^>  —  ^\-f-^  —  ^\-e-^  —  A,  repre- 
sents Trochaic  Trimeter  Catalectic  with  Anacrusis.     Thus  all  Iambic  verses  may  lx 
treated  as  Trochaic  verses  with  Anacrusis. 

*  Compare  the  English  Alexandrine,  the  last  line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza  • 

When  PboeTwa  lifts  I  his  head'  out  of !  the  win'tsr1*  w»v» 


IONIC   VERSE.  361 

4.  The  CBOLLAJTBUS  is  a  variety  of  Iambic  Trimeter  with  a  Trochee  hi  the 

rixthfoot:1 

Miser  Catul-  |  le  desinas  |  ineptlre.   Catul. 

623.  The  IAMBIC  TRIMETER  CATALECTIC  occurs  in  Horace  with 
the  following  scale  : 

e,^^_|>^^_  |  v^-to 
Vocatus  at-  |  que  non  voca-  |  tus  audit,  ffor. 

NOTE.—  The  Dactyl  and  the  Anapaest  arenot  admissible  ;  the  Tribrach  occurs  only 
in  the  second  foot. 

624.  The  IAMBIC  DIMETER  consists  of  two  Iambic  Dipodies  : 

O-i-w  —  I  5  .£.  \_/  — 
Queruntur  in  |  silvis  aves.     floor, 
Imbres  nives-  |  que  comparat.     HOT. 
Ast  ego  vicis-  j  sim  rlsero.     Hor. 

NOTE  1.—  Horace  admits  the  Dactyl  only  in  the  first  foot,  the  Tribrach  only  in  the 
second,  the  Anapaest  not  at  all. 

NOTE  2.  —  Iambic  Dimeter  is  sometimes  catalectic. 

625.  The  IAMBIC  TETRAMETER  consists  of  four  Iambic  Dipo 
dies.     It  belongs  chiefly  to  comedy  : 

Quantum  intellex-  |  I  modo  senis  1  1  sententiam  |  de  nflptiin.   Ter. 

NOTE.—  lambio  Tetrameter  is  sometimes  catalectic  : 

Quot  commodas  |  res  attuH?  I!  quot  autem  ad6  |  ml  eiirfts.   Ter. 

V.  IONIC  VERSE. 

6S6.  The  Ionic  Verse  in   Horace  consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.     It  may  be  eifher  Trimeter  or  Dimeter  : 


Neque  pugno  |  neque  segnl  |  pede  victus  ; 
Catus  Idem  |  per  apertum.  Hor. 

Rom  1.—  In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  is  often  long  only  *»'. 
porftion  (p.  838,  foot-note  3).  Thus  w>  in  vlctus  ii  long  before  <•  in  catus. 

NOTE  2.—  The  Ionic  Tetrameter  Catalectic^  also  called  Potadfan  Vernt^  occur* 
ihiefly  In  comedy.  It  consists  in  general  of  Greater  Ionics,  but  in  Martial  it  bus  a  Ditr»- 
;hoe  as  the  third  foot  : 

-t_^,^jj:_w^/|^.wc;s^|  -«-^7\ 
Has  cum  geml-  ]  nfi  compede  |  dudicat  ca-  1  tenas.  Mart. 

1  CttoliambuH,  or  Season,  means  lame  or  Umping  fambus,  and  is  so  called  from 
(ts  Umping  movement.  It  is  explained  as  a  Trochaic  Trimeter  Acntalectic  with  Anacru- 
lis.  and  with  syncope  (6O8,  VII.)  in  the  fifth  foot.  Th«  example  here  given  may  be  rep- 
'  «iMitod  thus  :  ^  !  -t^  —  ^l^..^  —  ^!  i/.  —  <^ 


362  LOQAOED1C   VERSE. 

VI.    LOQAOEDIC    VERSE. 

627.  Logaoedic  '  Verse  is  a  special  variety  of  Trochaic  Verse. 
The  Irrational  Trochee  j.  >,  the  Cyclic  Dactyl  -^  ^/,  and  the  Syn- 
copated Trochee  i—  (608,  VII.)  are  freely  admitted.     It  has  an  ap- 
parently light  ictus." 

NOTE.  —  Logaoedic  verses  show  great  variety  of  form,  but  a  fov.  general  types  will  in- 
dicate the  character  of  the  whole. 

628.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  appear  in  Horace  : 
I.  The  ADONIC  : 


Montis  i-  |  mag6.  Hor. 
II.  The  FIRST  PHERECRATIC  '  or  the  ARISTOPHANIC  : 


Ciir  neque  |  mlli-  |  taris.  EOT. 

NOTE.—  Pherecratic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tripody 
It  is  called  the  First  or  Second  Pherecratic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first  or 
the  second  place  in  the  verse  In  each  form  it  may  be  acat-alectic  or  eataUcHc  : 

1)  -^  *.,  |  -^  ^/  |  -L  o  or  catalectic  :  -A.,  ^  |  •*-  ^  \  ^  A 

2)  .A  >   |  -^  ^  |  -i.  c  or  catalectic.  -t->   \  -A_,  ^  \  &  A 

In  Logaoedic  verse  the  term  basix  or  bane,  marked  x  ,  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  foot  or 
feet  which  precede  the  Cyclic  Dactyl.  Thus,  in  the  Second  Pherecratic,  the  first  foot  _  > 
is  the  base. 

III.  The  SECOND  GLYCONIC  8  CATALECTIC  : 


Donee  |  gratus  e-  |  ram  ti-  |  b!.  Hor. 

NOTE  1.  —  Glyconic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tetrapody. 
U  is  called  the  First,  Second,  or  Third  Glyconic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first, 
second,  or  third  place  in  the  verse.  In  each  form  it  may  be  either  acatalectic  or  catalectic. 

NOTB  2.—  The  Second  Olyconio  sometimes  has  a  Syncope  1  608,  VII.)  in  the  third  foot. 

IV.  The  LESSER  ASCLEPIADEAN  *  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Ph«- 
recratics,  a  Second  and  a  First  : 

^>  |^^|I_||^.,|^^|^A 
Maece-  |  nas  ata  |  vis  1  1  edite  |  rggi-  |  bus.  Hor. 

1  From  Adyof.  proM,  and  00167),  »ong,  applied  to  verses  which  resemble  prose. 

1  The  free  use  of  long  syllables  in  the  thesis  causes  the  poetical  ictus  on  the  arsis  tc 
appear  less  prominent 

1  Pherecratic.  Glyconic,  and  Asclepiadean  verses  may  be  explained  as  Choriambic  : 
Pherecratic,  -^^^-*-|^-*-|OA 
First  Glyconic.  -*•  ^  ^  J-  \  ^  -t-  \  ^  ^ 
Atfclepiadean,  -t>  |-t^^^.|^.v^._,^.|wsfc 


LOGAOEDIC    VERSK  363 

V.  The   GREATER   ASCLEPIADEAN   consists  of  three  catalectic 

verses,  a  Second  Pherecratic,  an  Adonic,  and  a  First  Pherecratic  : 

-<->  |^~  |  i_  |i  -^v_  |  L_  ||-t^^|^^|^A 
Seu  plu-  |  res  hie-  |  rues,  ||  seu  tribu-  |  it  II  Juppiter  |  ulti-  |  mam.  Hor. 

VI.  The  LESSER  SAPPHIC  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  and  a 
First  Pherecratic  : 

-*-_   |^-   >    |   -^.      "  -t^  |   -to 

Namque  |  me  sil-  |  va  lupus  |  ir.  >a-  |  Dlna.  Hor. 

VII.  The  GREATER  SAPPHIC  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Glyconics, 
a  Third  and  a  First  with  Syncope  . 

-L^\-L>    |^^|l_|l-A^_|-tw||_|*A 

Inter  |  acquit-  |  lt-s  equi-  |  tat,  1 1  Gallica  |  nee  lu-  |  pa-  |  tib.   Hor. 

VIII.  The  LESSER  ALCAIC  consists  of  two   Cyclic  Dactyl*  and 

two  Trochees: 

-L^,  ^  |  -A_  ^  |  J-  ^,  |  -t.  o 

Purpure-  |  0  van-  |  us  co-  |  lore.  EOT. 

IX.  The  GREATER  ALCAIC  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  with 
Anacrusis  and  a  Catalectic  First  Pherecratic: 

>   :  ^i^fci^^i^i*  A 

Vi-  j  des  ut  |  alti  |  stet  nive  |  candi-  |  dum.  HOT. 

X.  The  GREATER  ARCHILOCHIAN  l  consists  of  a  Dactylic  Tetra- 
meter (616)  followed  by  a  Trochaic  Tripody.    .The  first  three  feet 
are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees  ;  the  fourth,  a  Dactyl  ;  and  the  last 
three,  Trochees : 

-t-  OO  I  -f-  CX2  I   -t-  CX7  I  -t-  ^,  ^,\\  -t-  ^,  \  -£-^1  -tO 

I  —'I  \  V-'V-^M  v-X|  *-s    I 

Vltae  |  summa  bre-  |  vis  spem  |  nfis  vetat,  1 1  incho-  |  are  |  longam.   Hor. 

NOTE.— This  verse  may  b«  explained  either  as  Logaoedic  or  as  Compound  With  the 
first  explanation,  the  Dactyls  are  cyclic  and  the  Spondees  have  irrational  time:  with  the 
wcond  explanation,  the  first  member  of  the  verse  has  the  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot 
arid  the  second  member  the  Trochee;  see  6O1,  note  8. 

629.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  not  used  in  Horace  de- 
serve mention  : 

I.  The  PHALAECIAN  is  a  fogaoedic  Pentapody:  * 

*Z,  |   -^^  \J.^\J.^\J.*3 

NOn  cat  |  vivere,  1  sed  va-  |  l6re  |  vita.  Mart. 

1  For  the  Le**tr  Ar'tiitoch-ian,  see  617,  not*. 

2  This  verse  differs  from  the  Leaner  StippMc  In  having  the  Dactyl  in  the  second  foot, 
while  the  latter  hai  the  Dactyl  in  the  third. 


364  LYRIC  METRES   OF  HO  RACK. 

II.  The  SECOND  PRIAPEAN  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Second 
Olyconics  with  Syncope  : 

^£.|-^^|-*-^|I_H-«->|.A_^|L_  |^A 
Quercus  |  arida  |  rusti-  |  ca  1  1  confer-  |  mata  se  |  cu-  |  rl.   Gatul. 

SECTION    III. 

THE  VERSIFICATION  OF  THE    PRINCIPAL  LATIN    POETS 

630.  Vergil  and  Juvenal  use  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  ;   Ovid, 
the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamorphoses  and  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his 
Epistles  and  other  works  ;  Horace,  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epistles 
and  Satires,  and  a  variety  of  metres  in  his  Odes  and  Epodes. 

LYRIC  METRES  OP  HORACE. 

631.  For   convenience  of    reference,   an  outline  of   the  lyric 
metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 

Stanzas  of  Four    Verses  or  Lines. 

I.  ALCAIC  STANZA.  —  First  and  second  lines,  Greater  Alcaics  (628,  IX.)  ; 
third,  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis  (619,  1);  fourth,  Lesser  Alcaic 
(628,  VIII.): 


3  2/     :    —  ^  —  v>   I   —  ^  —  ^ 

.  \^    |        '-^          |          x—  '   I 

In  thirty-seven  Odes  :  I.,  9,  16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  II.,  1,  3,  5, 
7,  9,  11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20;  III.,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29;  IV., 
4,  9,  14,  15. 

II.  SAPPHIC  STANZA.  —  The  first  three  lines,  Lesser  Sapphics  (628,  VI.); 
the  fourth,  Adonic  (628,  I.)  : 


2.  }•   -  w  I  -  > 
8. 

In  twenty-six  Odes:  I.,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  26,  30,  32,  38;  II.,  2,  4,  6,  8, 
10,  16;  III.,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27 ;  IV.,  2,  6,  11 ;  and  Secular  Hymn. 

III.  GREATER  SAPPHIC  STANZA. — First  and  third  lines,  First  Glyconica 
Catalectic  with  Syncope  in  the  third  foot  (608,  VII.) ;  second  and  fourth 
lines,  Greater  Sapphics : 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE.  365 


In  O.le  I.,  8. 

IV.  FIRST  ASCLEPIADEAN  GLYCONIC  STANZA. — The  first  three  lines. 
Lesser  Asclepiadeans  («28,  IV.) ;    the  fourth .  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic 
(«28,  IIL) :      j 

3.  ) 

In  nine  Odes  :  I.,  6,  15,  24,  33 ;  II.    12 ;  III.,  10,  16;  IV.,  5,  12 

V.  SECOND  ASCLEPIADEAN  GLYCONIC  STANZA. — The  first  two  lines, 
Lesser  Asclepiadeans  (628,  IV.) ;  the  third,  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic  with 
Syncope  in  the  third  foot  (628,  III.,  note  2) ;  the  fourth,  Second  Glyconic 
Catalectic  (628,  III.) : 

1.1  ,  ,        ,  -  ,  w 

2.) 

In  seven  Odes  :  I.,  5,  14,  21,  23 ;  III.,  7,  13  ;  IV.,  13 

VI.  GLYCONIC  ASCLKPIADHAN  STANZA. — First  and  third  lines,  Second 
Glyconics  Catalectic  (628,  III.);  second  and  fourth,  Lesser  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  IV.) : 


>  I--  IL.H-WW  |-^  |"  A 

In  twelve  Odes  :   I.,  3,  13,  19,  .36;   III.,  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28      IV.,  1,3. 
VII.  LESSKR  ASCLEPIADEAN  STANZA.  —  Four  Lo^er  Asdepiadeans  : 


A 


In  three  Odes  :!.,!;  III.,  30;  TV.,  8. 

VIII.  GREATER  AsrLEFiADKAN  STANZA.  —  Four 
(628,  V.)  : 

i 


In  three  Odes  :  I.,  11,  18  ;  IV.,  10. 


366  LYRIC  METRES   OF  HORACE. 

IX.  DOUBLE  ALCMANIAN  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic  Hexa 
meters  (610);  second  and  fourth,  Dactylic  Tetrameters  '816): 


1     — 

3.  ) 


oo    -00    -      „-* 

In  two  Odes  :  I.,  7,  28. 

NOTE.  —  This  stanza  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  A  Ionian  ian  stanzas;  see  XIX.  below. 

X.  TROCHAIC  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalec- 
tic  (619);  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623): 

H  i-    * 

3.  i 


In  Ode  II.,  18. 

XL  DACTYLIC  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA.  —  First   and  third  lines,  Dactylic 
Hexameters  ;  second  and  fourth,  Catalectic  Dactylic  Trimeters  (617,  note): 


I     — 

8.) 


ti- 


4. 
In  Ode  IV.,  7. 

XII.  GREATER  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA. — First  and  third  lines,  Greater  Ar. 
chilochians  (628,  X.) ;  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623): 

1. 
3. 

In  Ode  I.,  4. 

NOT*.— The  second  and  fourth  lines  are  sometimes  read  with  syncope,  as  follows: 

XIII.  IONIC  STANZA. — First  and  second  lines,  Ionic  Dimeters  (626)  ; 
third  and  fourth,  Ionic  Trimeters  (626) : 


if 
if 


In  Ode  III.,  12. 

NOTK  —This  ode  is  variously  arranged  in  different  editions,  sometimes  in  stanzas  of 
three  lines  and  sometimes  of  four. 


LYRIC  METRES   OF  flORACE.  367 

Stanzas  of  Three  Lines. 

XIV.  FIRST   ARCHILOCHIAN   STANZA. — First   line,   Hexameter;   second, 
Iambic  Dimeter;  third,  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic: 

1,  —  oo  I  —  oo  1  —  oo  I  —  oo  1  —  \^  \^  I  —  ^ 

2.  >_^-|>,-^~ 

O  I      I      <^          A 

In  Epode  13. 

NOTE. — In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

XV.  SECOND  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA. — First  line,  Iambic  Trimeter ;  sec- 
ond, Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic ;  third,  Iambic  Dimeter : 

1.  £-  —  ^—  |  &  —  *->  —  |^  —  ^^ 

In  Epode  11. 

NOTE.— In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

Stanzas  of  Two  Lines. 

XVI.  IAMBIC   STANZA. — First   line,  Iambic   Trimeter;  second,  Iambic- 
Dimeter:          .    >  _      _i>_      _i>_      ^ 

2.  2,  —  ^  —  I  ^/  —  ^  ^ 
In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

XVII.  FIRST   PYTHIAMBK:    STANZA. — First    line,    Dactylic   Hexameter ; 
second,  Iambic  Dimeter  (624): 

1.  —  oo  |  —  oo  I  —  oo  I  —  oo  I  —  ^  ^  I  —  ^ 

In  Epodes  14  and  15. 

XVIII.  SECOND  PYTHIAMBIO  STANZA. — First  line,  Dactylic  Hexameter; 
second,  Iambic  Trimeter : 

1.  —  oo  |  —  oo  J  —  oo  |  —  oo  |  _  ,_,  ^  |  _  w 

2    >,  ^ i  >,  _  ^ l^, ^^ 

In  Epode  16. 

XIX.  A  i. CM  AM  AN    STANZA. — First    line,    Dactylic    Hexameter ;   second. 
Dactylic  Tetrameter : 

2.  -oo|-oo|-_|_w 
In  Epode  12. 

Not  grouped  into  Stanzas. 

XX.  IAMBIC  TRIMETER: 

IB  Epode  17. 


368 


METRES   OF  CATULLUS. 


632.  INDEX  TO  THE  LTBIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 

The  Roman  numerals  refer  to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline,  6 


ODV8. 
1      .   . 

BOOK  I. 

MBTKES. 
VII. 

HUMS. 

4   . 

METRES.        ODES. 

II.      26   .. 

MKTRKH, 
I. 

5 

I 

27  . 

II. 

2     .  . 

II. 

6   . 

II.      28 

VI. 

3    .. 

VI. 

7  . 

I. 

29   .. 

I. 

4    .  . 

XII. 

8  . 

II. 

30   .. 

VII 

5 

V. 

9 

I. 

1    .  . 

BOOK  IV. 
VI 

6     . 

rv. 

10  . 

II. 

7 

IX. 

11   . 

.  I. 

8     . 

III. 

12  . 

...                 IV. 

2 

.   .                II. 

9   .  . 

I. 

13   . 

I. 

3   .  . 

VI. 

10  .. 

II. 

14  . 

I. 

4   .  . 

I. 

11   .  . 

VIII. 

16   .. 

I. 

5    .. 

IV. 

12   .. 

II. 

16  .. 

II. 

6   .  . 

II. 

13   .. 

....  VI. 

17   . 

I. 

7  .. 

XI. 

14 

V. 

18   . 

X. 

8   .  . 

...     .          VII. 

16   . 

IV. 

19   . 

I. 

9   .. 

I. 

16      . 

I. 

20   . 

I. 

10   .. 

VIII. 

17 

I. 

1    . 

BOOK  III. 
I. 

11    .  . 

....        II. 

18   .  . 

VIII. 

12   .. 

IV. 

19   .. 

VI. 

18  .. 

V. 

20  .  . 

II. 

2     . 

I. 

14      . 

I. 

21    .  . 

V. 

3   . 

I. 

15    .. 

I. 

22 

.    .              II. 

4   . 

I. 

EPOPBS. 
1 

EPODES. 

METBKS. 

XVI. 

23   .  . 

....           V. 

5   . 

I 

24    .. 

IV. 

6   . 

I. 

25 

II. 

7 

...           V 

26   .  . 

I. 

8  . 

II 

2     . 

XVI. 

27 

I. 

9 

VI 

3   . 

4    . 

....      XVI. 

28   . 

IX. 

10 

....         IV. 

.  .      .  .      XVI. 

29   .. 

I. 

11    . 

II. 

6    .  . 

XVI. 

30  .. 

II. 

12   . 

XIII. 

6    .  . 

XVI. 

31    .  . 

I. 

13   . 

V. 

7   .. 

XVI. 

32  .  . 

II. 

14   . 

....  II. 

8   .. 

XVI. 

33   .  . 

IV. 

15 

VI. 

9   .  . 

XVI. 

34   .. 

I. 

16   . 

IV. 

10   .  . 

XVI. 

36 

I. 

17  . 

I. 

11 

XV. 

36  .. 

Vi. 

18 

II. 

12    .  . 

XIX. 

37 

I. 

19 

VI 

13    . 

XIV 

38     . 

II. 

20   . 

...       n.    14  .  . 

XVII. 

1 

BOOK  II. 
I 

21 

I.  '  15    .  . 

XVII. 

22   . 

II.     16    ... 

XVIII. 

23 

I    i  17 

XX. 

2 

....           II. 

24   . 

VI. 

8 

I. 

VI.  '•  SECTLAR  HYMN.          II. 

633.  The  metres  of  the  following  poets  must  be  briefly  men- 
tioned : 

I.  CATULLUS  uses  <thiefly  (1)  the  Elegiac  Distich  (G I. '»);  (2)  Phalaecian 


METRES   0V  MARTIAL,   PLAUTUS,  ETC  369 

T«rse  (620,  I.) ;  (3)  Choliambus  or  Scazon  (628,  4) ;  (4)  Iambic  Trimeter 
(622)  ;  (5)  Priapean  (629,  II.). 

II.  MARTIAL  uses  largely  the  Choliambus  or  Scazon  and  the  Phalaecian 
verse. 

NOTE  1.— Martial  also  uses  Iambic  and  Dactylic  measures. 

NOTE  2.  -Seneca  in  his  choral  odes  imitates  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace.  He  uf«s 
Sapphics  very  freely,  and  often  combines  them  into  systems  closing  with  the  Adonic. 

NOTE  8. — Seneca  also  uses  Anapaestic  '  verse  with  Spondees  and  Dactyls  as  equiv- 
alent*. This  consisto  of  one  or  more  dipodies  : 

Venient  annis  |  saecula  sens. 

HI.  Plautus  and  Terence  use  chiefly  various  Iambic  and  Trochaic  me. 
tree,  but  they  also  use — 

1.  BACCHIAC"  METRES,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter: 

Multas'  res  |  simi'ta  in  |  meo'  cor-  |  de  vor'sfi.  Plant, 
At  ta'inen  ubf  |  fides'  ?  si  |  roges',  nil  |  pendent'  hie.   Ter. 

NOTE.—  The  Molossus, ,  may  take  the  place  of  the  Bacchius,  as  in  multfo  ri», 

•od  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  as  in  a*  tamen  ubi. 

2.  CRKTIC  '  METRES,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 

Nam'  doll  |  nOn*  doll  |  aunt',  nisi  as-  |  tu'  colas.  Plavt. 
Dt'  malls  |  gau'deant  |  at'que  ex  in-  |  com'modls.   Ter. 

Nora  1.— Plautns  also  uses  Anapaestic  metres,  especially  Dimeters  : 

Quod  ag6'  subit,  ad-  |  secuG'  sequitur.  Plant. 
This  measure  admits  Dactyls  and  Spondees,  rarely  Proceleusmatics,  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

NOTE  2.— For  Trochaic  and  Iambic  Metre*  in  Comedy,  see  62O,  note  2;  682,  8. 
NOTB  8.— For  Special  Peculiarities  in  the  prosody  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see 
576,  notes  2  and  8;  578,  note  2;  58O,  notes  2,  3,  and  4." 

NOTE  4. — On  the  free  use  of  Sy-ntteretit  in  Comedy,  see  6O8,  III.,  note  8. 

1  See  603,  note  1;  507,  note  1. 

1  For  a  rail  account  of  the  metres  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see  editions  of  those  poeU  ; 
as  the  edition  of  Plautus  by  Ritschl,  of  a  part  of  Plautus  by  Harrington,  the  edition  of 
Terence  by  Wagner,  and  the  edition  by  Crowell;  also  Spwgel,  'PUutiu :  Kritik,  Pro- 
aodie,  Metrik: 


370  APPENDIX. 


APP  E1ST  DIX. 


L  FIGUUES  OF  SPEECH. 

634.  A  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  form,  eonstntictwn,  fi 
•ignification  of  words. 

NOTE. — Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology ;  from 
the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  ty'  Syntax;  and  from  the  ordinary  significations, 
Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

635.  The  principal  FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY  are — 

1.  APHAKKKSIS,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  beginning  ot  a  word :  '«/ 
for  eat. 

*.  SYNCOPE,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a  word :  dlfe  for 
dtotsse. 

ft.  APOCOPE,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end  of  a  word :  tun'  for  tune. 

4.  EPKNTHBSIS,  the  insertion  of  one  or  more  letters  in  a  word :  Alcumina.  for  Alf 
m?na,  fiMtuum  for  ffHtum, 

£  METATHESIS,  the  transposition  of  letters :  pistris  for  pri&U 

6.  See  also  FIGURES  OF  PROSODY,  608. 

636.  The  principal  FIGURES  OP  SYNTAX  are^ 

I.  ELLIPSIS,  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a  sentence  : 
Ilabitabat  ad  Jovis  (sc.  templum),  he  divelt  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  liv. 

Hie  illius  anna  (fu~erunt\  hie  currus  fuit,  here  were  her  arms,  here  her  chariot. 

Verg. 

1.  ASYNDETON  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  conjunction :  i 

YCnL,  vldl,  vlcl,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.  Suet.    Sec  also  554, 1.,  6,  with  note  1. 

2.  For  the  ELLIPSIS  otfaoio,  died,  oro,  see  368, 3,  note  1 ;  523,  L,  note;  569, 11.,  8 
8.  For  APOSIOPBSIS  or  RBTICENTIA,  aee  637,  XL,  3 

II.  BRACHYLOGY,  a  concise  and  abridged  form  of  expression: 

Nostri  Graece  nesciunt  nee  Graecl  Latino,*  our  people  do  not  Icnow  Greet 
ind  the  Greeks  (do)  not  (know)  Latin.  Cio.  Natura  hominis  beluls  antece- 
dit,s  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cie. 

1.  Zeugma  employs  a  word  in  two  or  more  connections,  though  strictly 
applicable  only  in  one : 

Pacem  an  bellum  ger6ns,»  whether  at  peace  or  waging  war.  Sail.  DucCs 
plctasque  exure  carinas,  slay  the  leaders  and  burn  the  painted  ships.  Verg. 

1  Asyndeton  is  sometimes  distinguished  according  to  its  use,  as  Adversative^  Ex- 
vHcative,  Enumerative,  etc. ;  see  Nagelsbacb, '  Stilistik,'  §  200. 

9  Here  nesciunt  suggest*  sciunt,  and  beluls  in  the  second  example  i«  e  •a'vj.k-ut.  to 
beiiMrum  naturae. 

'  Gerent,  applicable  only  to  bell-urn, .'.»  ber*  need  al»o  of  zxic*"«. 


FIGURES   OF  SYNTAX.  37] 

3.  Syllepst*  is  the  use  of  an  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns,  or  of  a  vert 
with  two  or  more  subjects  : 

Pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  ar«  dead  (439).  Ter.  Tt 
rt  Tullia  valetis,  you  and  Tullia  art  well.  Cic. 

ILL  PLEONASM  is  a  full,  redundant,  or  emphatic  form  of  expression  :  * 
Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exlre  possent,  there  were  two  ways  b$ 

vhich  ways  they  might  depart.   Caes.     Eurusque  Notusque  ruuut,  both  Ewrm 

ind  Notua  rush/orth.  Verg. 

1   POLYSYNDETON  Is  a  pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunction?",  as  in  the  test  example. 
2.  HKNDIAD  YS  is  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction,  instead  of  a  noun  with  at 

adjective  or  genitive  : 

Annls  virisque  for  virls  armatls,  with  armed  men.  Tac, 

8.  ANAPHORA  ia  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses: 

MS  c&ncta  Italia,  mO  universa  civitis  cOnsulem  declaravit,  me  all  Italy,  me  ff>* 

whole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  EPIPBOBA  ia  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses  : 
Laelius  navus  erat,  ductus  erat,  Ladiu*  wot  diligent,  was  learned,  do. 
6.  EPIZEUXIS  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  a  word  : 

Fuit,  fuit  quondam  in  hue  ru  publici  virt&S,  tlwe  was,  there  wa»/orm*rly  virtu* 
in  this  reptubiic.  Cic. 

6.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  >  Tore  successive  nouns,  regularly  so 
with  et—et: 

Et  in  bellicls  et  f  n  cirfllbus  offlclls,  both  in  military  and  in  civil  qfflces.  Cic. 
NOTE.—  Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  repeated. 

7.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb—  *'</,  hoc,  illud,  «?c,  iia—te  often  used  some- 
what redundantly  to  represent  a  subsequent  clause.    Bo  also  quid,  in  quid  censes  with 
a  clause: 

Hind  K  GrG  nt  dTDgens  sTs,  Task  you  (that  thhig)  to  lie  (that  yon  be)  diligent.  C* 

&  Pronouns  are  often  redundant  with  quidem  ;  see  45O,  4,  note  2. 

9   Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet: 

Ut  Hcent  permittltur  =  Hcet,  it  it  lawful  (Is  permitted  that  it  1s,  etc.).  Oc. 

19.  Circumlocutions  with  r<~«,  ffenus,  modus,  and  ratio  are  common. 

IV.  ENALLAOB  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  01 
of  one  grammatical  form  for  another  : 

Popnlus  late  rex  (for  regndns),  a  people  of  extension  tway  (ruling  extensive- 
ly). Verg.  Serns  (&ro)  in  caelum  redeas,  may  ymt  return  late  to  heaven.  Hor. 
Vina  cadis  (ctnte  cadOe)  onerSre,  to  Jill  th»  flash  with  wine.  Verg.  CursviF 
jflstl  (fastiis)  arnnia,  (he  regular  course  of  the  rirer.  Liv. 

1.  ANTIMBRTA  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  a»  In  the  first  two  examples. 

2.  HTPALT.AOE  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

8.  PROLEPSIS  or  ANTICIPATION  Is  the  application  of  an  epithet  In  anticipation  of  the 
tction  of  the  verb  : 

Scuta  tatentia  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hi/Idem  shield  ».  Verg.    See  also  440,  S. 
4.  STNESIS  Is  a  construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical  forma 
SW  examples,  see  438,  6:  445,0;  461. 


^  Pleonasm,  a  fun  or  emphatic  expression,  differs  widely  from  Tavtotv^i/   wmcfc  V 
weediest  repetition  of  tbe  same  meaning  in  dtfferen'-  word» 


372  APPENDIX. 

5.  ATTRACTION  unites  in  construction  words  not  united  in  sense : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocStnus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call  man.  Cic. 
See  also  445,  4,  8,  and  9. 

6.  ANACOLUTHON  is  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts 
of  a  sentence  : 

SI,  nt  dlcunt,  omnfls  GraiOs  esse  (Graft  sunt),  if,  as  they  say,  all  are  Greeks.  Cic. 

V.  HYPKRBATON  is  a  transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 
Praeter  arraa  nihil  erat  super  (supererat),  nothing  remained,  except  their 
arms.   Nep.    Valet  atque  vivit  (mvit  atque  valet),  he  is  alive  and  well.    Ter 
Subeunt  luco,  fluviumque  relinquunt,  they  enter  the  grove  and  leave  the  river. 
Verg. 

1.  ANASTBOPHK  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  HYSTERON  PROTEROK  is  a  transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  last  example. 

3.  TMESIS  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  : 

Nee  prius  respSxI  quam  vgnimng,  nor  did  Hook  back  before  (sooner  than)  we  ar- 
rived. Verg. 

4.  CHIASMUS  is  an  inverted  arrangement  of  words  in  contrasted  groups  ;  see  563 . 

637.  FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC  comprise  several  varieties.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important : ' 

I.  A  SIMILE  is  a  direct  comparison : 

Manus  effugit  imag8  par  levtbus  ventis  volucrique  simillima  somno,  the 
image,  like  the  swift  winds,  and  very  like  a  fleeting  dream,  escaped  my  hands. 
Verg. 

II.  METAPHOR  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  assigns  to  one  object  the 
appropriate  name,  epithet,  or  action  of  another  : 

Rel  publicae  vulnus  (for  damnum),  the  wound  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Nau- 
fragium  f  ortunae,  the  wreck  of  fortune.  Cic.  Aures  vgritatl  clausae  sunt, 
his  ears  are  closed  against  the  truth.  Cic. 

1.  Allegory  Is  an  extended  metaphor,  or  a  series  of  metaphors.  For  an 
example,  see  Horace,  I.,  Ode  14 :  O  navis  .  .  .  occupS  portum,  etc.2 

III.  METONYMY  is  the  use  of  one  name  for  another  naturally  suggested 
by  it  : 

Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio)  pugnatum  est,  they  fought  in,  an  equal  contest. 
Liv.  Furit  Vulcanus  (ignis),  the  fire  rages.  Verg.  Proximus  ardet  Ucale- 
gon  (domus  Ucalegontis),  Ucalegon  burns  next.  Verg. 

NOTE.— By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect,  and  the  effect  for  the 
cause  ;  the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the 
thing  signified,  the  material  for  the  manufactured  article,  etc. :  'Mars  for  be/lum, 
Vulcanus  for  ignis,  Bacchus  for  vlnum,  ndbilitas  for  ndbUes,  Graecia  for  Graecl, 
laurea  for  vlctdria,  argentum  for  vSsa  argentea,  etc. 

1  On  Figurative  Language,  see  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian , '  DS  Insti- 
tntiOne  OratOrifl,'  and  the  fourth  hook  of  '  Auctor  ad  Herenninm  '  in  Cicero's  works. 

»In  this  beautiful  allegory  the  poet  represents  the  vessel  of  state  as  having  been 
well-nigh  wrecked  in  the  storms  of  the  civil  war,  but  as  now  approaching  the  haven 
of  peace. 


FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC.  373 

1.  Autonomasia  designates  a  person  by  some  title  or  office,  as  eversor 
Karthdginis  for  ScipJX,  Bomanae  eloquentiae  prlncepsfor  Cicero. 

IV.  SYNECDOCHE  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  of  the  whole  for 
a  part;  of  the  special  for  the  general,  or  of  the  general  for  the  special  : 

8tatl5  male  flda  carlnls  (navibus),  a  station  unsafe  for  ships.  Verg. 

V.  IRONY  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite : 

Legates  bonus  (for  mains)  imperator  vester  non  adiulsit,  your  good  com- 
mander did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.   Liv.    See  also  5 O 7,  3,  note  1. 
NOTE. — Metaphor,  metonymy,  synecdoche,  and  irony  are  often  called  Tropes. 

VI.  CLIMAX  (ladder)  is  a  steady  ascent  or  advance  in  interest: 
AfricSno  industria  virtutem,  virtus  gloriam,  gloria  aemulas  comparavit, 

industry  procured  virtue  for  Africamts,  virtue  glory,  glory  rivals.   Cic. 

VII.  HYPERBOLE  is  an  exaggeration  : 

Ventis  et  fulminis  ocior  alls,  swifter  than  the  winds  and  the  wings  of  the 
lightning.  Verg. 

VIII.  LITOTES  denies  something  instead  of  affirming  the  opposite : 
Non  opus  est  =  perniciosum  est,  it  is  not  necessary.   Cic. 

IX.  PERSONIFICATION  or  PROSOPOPEIA  represents  inanimate  objects  as 
living  beings  : 

Ciijus  latus  ille  mucrS  petebat  ?  whose  side  did  that  weapon  seek?  Cic.i 

X.  APOSTROPHE  is  an  address  to  inanimate  objects  or  to  absent  persons- 
\"0s,  AlbanI  tumuli,  vos  impl&rO,  /  implore  you,  ye  Alban  hiln.   Cic. 

XI.  The  following  figures  deserve  brief  mention : 

1.  ALLITERATION,  a  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  words : 

VI  vlcta  vis  est,  force  was  conquered  by  force.  Cic.     FortissimT  virt  virtus, 
the  virtue  of  a  most  brave  man.   Cic. 

2.  APOPHASIS  or  PARALKIPSIS,  a  pretended  omission :  * 

Nfin  dlco  te  pecunias  accepisse ;  raplnas  tuas  omnes  omitto,  [do  not  elate 
that  you  accepted  money  ;  I  omit  all  your  acts  of  rapine.   Cic. 

3.  APOSIOPESIS  or  RETICENTIA,  an  ellipsis  which  for  rhetorical  effect 
leaves  the  sentence  unfinished : 

QuOs  ego — sed  mOtos  praestat  componere  flflctfls,  whom  I— but  it  is  better 
to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Verg. 

4.  EUPHEMISM,  the  use  of  mild  or  agreeable  language  on  unpleasant 
subjects : 

Si  quid  mihl  humanitus  accidisset,  if  anything  common  to  the  lot  of  man 
thould  be/all  me — i.  e.}  if  1  should  die.   Cic. 

>  Bee  also  First  Oration  against  Catiline,  VII.  :  Qua*  Wcum  .  .  .  taclta  loquitur,  etc. 
•  Sometimes  called  ooovpdtH. 


374  APPENDIX. 

5.  ONOMATOPOEIA,  the  use  of  a  word  in  imitation  of  a  special  sound- 
Boves  mugiunt,  the  cattle  low.  Liv.    Murmurat  unda,  the  wave  murmurs 

Verg. 

6.  OXYMORON,  an  apparent  contradiction  ? 

Absentes  adsnnt  et  egente s  abundant,  the  absent  are  present  and  the  need}, 
\ave  an  abundance.  Cie. 

7.  PARONOMASIA  or  AGNOMINATION,  a  play  upon  words : 

1 1  in  ic  avium  dulcedd  ducit  ad  avium,1  the  attraction  of  birds  leadt  him  tt 
the  pathless  wood.  Cic. 

II.  LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

638.  The  Latin  derives  its  name  from  the  Latinl  or  Latins,  the  ancien* 
inhabitants  of  Latium  in  Italy.  It  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family,  which  embraces  seven  groups  of  tongues  known  as  the  Indian  or 
Sanskrit,  the  Persian  or  Zend,  the  Greek,  the  Italian,  the  Celtic,  the  Slavomc, 
and  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic.  The  Latin  is  the  leading  member  of  the 
Italian  group,  which  also  embraces  the  Uinbrian  and  the  Oscan.  All  these  lan- 
guages have  one  common  system  of  inflection,  and  in  various  respects  strik- 
ingly resemble  each  other.  They  are  the  descendants  of  one  common  speech 
spoken  by  a  single  race  of  men  untold  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  history. 

NOTTS  1.— In  illustration  of  the  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  «ix! 
English,  compare  the  following  paradigms  of  declension  :  * 


SIKG0LAK. 

SANSKRIT. 

GREEK. 

LATIN. 

ENGLISH. 

Stem. 

pad, 

wot, 

ped, 

foot 

Nom.,\ 
Foe.    i 

-pad, 

irovs, 

I**, 

foou 

G&n. 

padas, 

ffoSof, 

pedis, 

of  »  foot 

Pat. 

pade, 

voSi, 

pedi. 

to  a  foot. 

Ace. 

partam, 

v6Sa,» 

pedem, 

foot. 

AM. 
Ing. 

padas, 
pada, 

pede,« 

from  a  foot 
with  a  foot 

Loc. 

padi, 

in  afoot 

PLURAL. 

Norn.,  \ 
Foe     i 

'padas, 

rife* 

pcdes, 

feet 

Gen. 

pad  am, 

foSStv, 

pedum, 

effect 

flat. 

padbhyas, 

root, 

pedibus, 

to  feet 

Ace. 

padas, 

ardSae, 

pedes, 

feet. 

Abl. 

padbhyas, 

pcdibus, 

from  feet 

Inn. 

padbhis, 

with  feeV 

Loo. 

patsu. 

in  feet. 

'  The  pun,  lost  in  English,  is  in  the  use  of  Swum,  »  remote  or  pathless  place,  with 
a^v^um,,  of  birds. 

*  See  also  p.  71,  foot-note  2;  p.  83..  foot-note  8. 

*  The  Ablative,  the  Instrumental,  and  the  Locative  are  lost  In  Greek,  but  thelt 
places  are  supplied  by  the  Genitive  and  the  Dative. 

*  The  final  consonant,  probably  /,  of  the  original  Ablative  ending  is  changed  to  «  in 
pad  OK  and  dropped  in  pede.    The  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Latin, 
>ut  their  places  are  supplied  by  the  Ablative 


LATIA   LAMGUAGS.  876 

NOTE  8.— In  these  paradigms  observe  that  the  Initial  p  in  pad,  not,  ped,  become*  / 
ii]  foot,  and  that  the  final  d  becomes  /.  This  change  is  in  accordance  with  Grimm's 
Law  of  the  Rotation  of  Mutes  in  the  Germanic  languages.  This  law  is  as  follows : 

The  Primitive  Mutes,  which  generally  remain  unchanged  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  are  changed  in  passing  into  the  Germanic  languages,  to  which  the  English  belongs. 
Thus  the  SONANTS,  d,  ff,  in  passing  into  English,  become  SURDS.  <,  k ;  the  SCRDS,  c,  A, 
p.  t,  become  ABPIRATES,  h,  wh^f  (for  pfi),  th;  the  ASPIBATES,  bh,1  dhj  gh*  become 
SONANTS,  b,  d,  g? 

NOTE  8. — The  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  may  be 
abundantly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  forma  of  familiar  words  in  these  different  lan- 
guages.8 

639.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Latin  whose  date  can  be  determined  are 
found  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  Christ  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Fragments,  however, 
of  laws,  hymns,  and  sacred  formulas,  doubtless  of  an  earlier  though  uncer- 
tain date,  have  been  preserved  in  Cato,  Livy,  Cicero,  and  other  Latin  writers.4 


1  Bh  generally  is  represented  in  Latin  by  ft  or  /;  dh  by  <1  or  /,  and  gh  by  g  h,  or  /; 
dee  Schleicher,  pp  244-251. 

*  For  an  account  of  Grimm's  Law,  with  its  applications,  see  Max  Mailer.  '  Sciencf 
•f  Language,'  Second  Series,  Lecture  V. ;  Pupil  Ion,  pp.  85-91. 

*  Compare  the  following: 

SANSKRIT.  OKF.F.K.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 

dvsu,  4vo,  duo,  two 

trayas,  rp<t«,  Ire's.  three, 

sat",  <£,  sex,  six. 

sapta,  en-rd,  septem,  seven, 

daca,  6<<ca,  decein,  ten. 

dris,  6t«,  bis,  twice, 

tris,  rpt'j,  ter,  thrice, 

mats,  /irjnjp,  iiiatiT,  mother, 

pita,  TaTTJp,  pater,  father, 

nans,  vaCc,  navis,  navy. 

vSk,  6<j>,  vox,  voice. 

*  Such  are  the  ancient  forms  of  prayer  found  in  Cato  and  other  writers,  the  fragments 
of  Salian  hymns,  of  the  formulas  of  the  Ketial  priests,  and  of  ancient  laws,  especially  ol 
the  taw*  of  the  Twelve  Tables.    The  following  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipion 
shows  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  early  Latin  : 

HONO  OINO  .  PLOIRTMK  .  OON8ENTIONT  .  B 
DVONORO  .  OPTVMO  .  FVISB  .  VIRO 
LVCIOM  .  8CIPIONE  .  FILIOS  .  BARBATI 
OON80L  .  CENSOR  .   AIDILI8  .  HIC  .  KVET  .  A 
UK''  .  CEPIT  .  OOB8ICA  .  ALERIAQVB  .  VKHK 
DKIIKT  .  TEMPESTATEBC8  .  AIDE  .  HERETO 

In  ordinary  Latin : 

Hunc  Qnnin  pluriml  cflnsentinnt  Rfrmdl 

bonfirum  optimum  ftilsse  virum  tirortim, 

LOcium  Sclpionem.    Fllins  BarbaH 

consul,  cCnsor,  aedllls  hie  full  apud  Tfo. 

Hie  c^plt  Corsicam  Aleri.imque  urbcm  pilffnandfi  • 

dedlt  teuipest&tibns  aedem  merits  votam, 

8««  Wordsworth,  'Early  Latin,'  Part  II.;  P.  D.  Allen,  'Early  Latin';  Roby,  I.,  p.  418. 


376  APPENDIX. 

640.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  begins  with  Livius  Andronicus 
a  writer  of  p/ays,  and  the  earliest  Roman  author  known  to  us.     It  em- 
braces  about  eight  centuries,  from  250  B.  c.  to  650  A.  D.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods.     These  periods,  with 
their  principal  authors,  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  ANTE-CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  from  260  to  81  B.  c. : 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius. 

TI   The  CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  embracing — 

1,  The  Golden  Aye,  from  81  B.  c.  to  14  A.  D.  : 

Cicero,  Nepos,  Horace,  Tibulltts, 

Caesar,  Livy,  Ovid,  Propertiu*. 

Sallust,  Vergil,  Catullus, 

2.  The  Silver  Age,  from  14  to  180  A.  D.  : 

Phaedrus,  The  Plinies,          Quintilian,          Persius, 

Velleius,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,          Lucap, 

The  Seneca s,          (Jurtius,  Juvenal,  Martial. 

III.  The  POST-CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  embracing— 

1.  The  Brazen  Aye,  from  180  to  476  A.  D.  : 

Justin,  Eutropius,  Lactantius,         Claudian, 

Victor,  Macrobius,  Ausonius,  Tereatian. 

2.  The  Iron  Age,  from  476  to  550  A.  D.  : 

Boethlus,  Cassiodorus,         Justinian,  Prisclan. 

HL  THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR. 

641.  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis  of  our  own,  and 
is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months  in  the  year  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  months. 

642.  PECULIARITIES. — The  Roman  calendar  has  the  following  pecu- 
liarities : 

L  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the  month,  as  with 
us,  but  from  three  different  points  in  the  month : 

1.  The  Calends,  the  first  of  each  month. 

2.  The  Nones,  the  fifth — but  the  seventh  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth — but  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May,  Jnly,  and 
October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  were  numbered,  not  forward,  but 
backward. 

NOTE.— Hence,  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  tho  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  month. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the  day  before 


ROMAN  CALENDAR. 


377 


each  was  denoted  by  prldie  Kalendds,  Ndnds,  etc. ;  the  second  before  each  by 
did  tertio  (not  seconds)  ante  Kalendas,  etc. ;  the  third,  by  die  quArtii,  etc. ;  and 
so  on  through  the  month. 

1.  This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the  second  day  before  the 
Calends,  etc.,  as  the  third,  and  the  third  as  the  fourth,  etc.,  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first.    Thus  prldie  KalendCix,  the  day 
before  the  Calends ;  diS  tertio  ante  JCalendda,  the  second  day  before  the  Calends. 

2.  In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  in  agreement 
with  Kalendfa,  Nf>nda,  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nfm&s  Jdnuiirias,  often  shortened  to 
quarto  ante  Nf>nas  Jan.,  or  IV.  ante  Nonas  Jan.,  or  without  ante,  as,  IV.  Nonas  Jiln^ 
the  second  of  January. 

8.  Ante  diem  is  common,  instead  of  die — ante,  as,  ante  diem  quartum  Nonas  Jiln. 
for  die  qudrtd  ante  Nfindt  Jan. 

4.  The  expressions  ante  diem  Kal.,  etc.,  prldie  Kal.,  etc.,  are  often  used  as  inde- 
clinable nouns  with  a  preposition,  as,  e»  ante  diem  V.  Idiis  Oct.,  from  the  llth  of  Oct 
Lie.  Ad  prtdie  Nona«  Maias,  till  the  6th  of  May.  Oic. 

643.  CALENDAR  FOB  THE  YEAH. 


Dmysof 
UM 

Month. 

Much,  M»y,  July, 
October. 

Juiuvy,  August, 
December. 

April,  June, 
September,  November. 

February. 

1 

K  \  1  E  M  >K  * 

KALKNIHS. 

KALKNKIS. 

KALENDlS. 

2 

VI.       Nonas.' 

IV.        Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

8 

V. 

III. 

III. 

IIL 

4 

IV. 

Prldio  NOnas. 

Pridig  Nonas. 

Prldi«  Nonai. 

5 

III. 

NONlB. 

NONls. 

NONls. 

6 

PridiC  Nonas. 

VIII       Id&s. 

VIII.      Idus. 

VII  I.      Idas. 

I 

NONls. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII.      Idtta. 

VL 

VI. 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V.               w 

V. 

V. 

10 

VL            « 

IV.            " 

IV. 

IV. 

11 

V. 

III.            " 

III. 

III. 

11 

IV. 

PridiC  Idfts. 

Pridli-  Idas 

Prldifi  Idfls 

18 

III. 

IDIBUS. 

IDIBIM. 

IDIHTJS. 

14 

Prldio  Idus. 

XIX.    Kalend.' 

XVIII.  Ka  end.' 

XVI.    Kal  nd.' 

15 

IDIBUB. 

XVIII.       " 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVII.  Kalend* 

XVII.        » 

XVI. 

XIV. 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIIL 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XIL 

19 

XIV.          * 

XIV.          u 

XIIL 

XL 

20 

XIII.          •* 

XIII.         » 

XII. 

x 

21 

XIL 

XII.           u 

XI. 

IX. 

22 

XL             » 

XL             * 

X. 

VIII. 

28 

X.              ** 

X.               * 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

IX.             •» 

VIIL 

VL 

26 

VIII.          « 

VIII. 

VII. 

V.  (VI.)  » 

28 
27 

VII.            " 
VI.             - 

VII.            " 
VI. 

VI. 

V. 

IV.  (V.) 

in.  (iv.)  " 

28 

V.              " 

V.              * 

IV. 

Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 

29 

IV.            » 

IV. 

III. 

(Prld.  Knl.) 

80 

III.         « 

III. 

Pridltj  Kalend. 

( 

31 

Pridid  Kalend. 

Prtdie  Kalend. 

1  To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc.,  the  name  of  the  month  roust  of  course  be  added.  Be- 
fore Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante.  Is  sometimes  used  and  sometimes  omitted  (642,  III.,  2). 

9  The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are  of  course  meant;  Uiu  Kith  of  March,  fur 
Instance,  Is  XVII.  Kalenda*  Aprilet. 

*  The  Inclosed  forms  apply  to  Jeap-y«ar. 


878  APPENDIX. 

644.  ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  DATES. — The  table  (643)  wiD  furnish  th« 
fearner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date,  or  the  Latin  ex- 
pression for  any  English  date ;  but  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the 
following  rule  •• 

I.  If  the  dav  is  numbered  from  the  Nones  or  Ides,  subtract  the  number 
diminished  bj  ine  from  the  number  of  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall: 

VIIL  ante  Idus  Jan.  =  13  —  (8  - 1)  =  18  —  1  =  6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following  month,  sub- 
tract the  number  diminished  by  two  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  current 
month : 

XVIIL  ante  Kal.  Feb.  =  31  —  (18  — 2)  =  31  - 16  =  15th  of  January. 

NOTE.— In  leap-year  the  24th  and  the  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before 
the  Calends  of  March,  VI.  Kal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  as  if 
the  month  contained  only  28  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  numbered  regularly 
for  a  month  of  29  days :  V^JV.,  HI.  Kal.  Mart.,  and  pndie  Kal.  Mart. 

645.  The  Roman  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  the  night,  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  were  each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve 
hours. 

1.  The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  Roman  hours 
each. 

2.  The  hour,  being  uniformly  '/,j  of  the  day  or  of  the  night,  of  course  varied 
in  length  with  the  length  of  the  day  or  night  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

IV.  ROMAN  MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASUBES. 

646.  The  principal  Roman  coins  were  the  as,  of  copper;  the  sestertius, 
fulnarius,  denarius,  of  silver ;  and  the  aureu$,  of  gold.     Their  value  in  the 
classical  period  may  be  approximately  given  as  follows '. 

Is 1  to  2  cents. 

SfcHtertius 5 

Quinarius 10 

Denarius 20 

Aureus  =  25  denarii $5.00 

1.  The  ds,  the  unit  of  the  Roman  currency,  contained  originally  a  pound 
jf  copper,  but  it  was  diminished  from  time  to  time  till  at  last  it  contained 
»nly  J/M  of  a  pound. 

NOTE. — An  as,  whatever  its  weight,  was  divided  Into  twelve  unotae. 

2.  The  stttertivs  contained  originally  2}^  asses,  the  quindriw  5,  and  the 
ifenarius  10 ;  but  as  the  as  depreciated  in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these 
.Toins  was  increased. 

8.  The  &s  is  also  used  as  a  general  unit  of  measure.    Thus— 

1)  In  Weight^  the  ds  is  a  pound,  and  the  flneia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure,  the  a*  is  a  foot  or  a  jQgerum  (648,  IV.  and  V.),  and  the 
Uncia  is  '/ia  of  a  foot  or  of  a  jugerum. 

8)  In  Interest,  the  at  is  the  unit  of  interest — L  e.t  1  p«r  cent,  a  month. 


MONEY,   WEIGHTS,   AND   MEASURES.  ,379 

or  12  per  cent,  a  year ;  the  uncia  is  "/u  Per  cent.  a  month,  or  1  per  cent,  a 
year;  and  the  semis  is  «/ia  per  cent,  a  month,  or  6  per  cent,  a  year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance,  the  as  is  the  whole  estate,  and  the  undo,  Via  of  it :  heres 
ex  asse,  heir  of  the  whole  estate ;  Jieres  ex  dodrante,  heir  of  •/«• 

647.  COMPUTATION  OF  MONEY. — In  all  sums  of  money  the  common  unit 
of  computation  was  the  sestertius,  also  called  nummus  ;   but  four  special 
points  deserve  notice : 

I.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  denoted  by 
sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals : 

Qulnque  sestertii,  5  sesterces ;  vigintl  sestertii,  20  sesterces ;  ducentl  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces. 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mllle  sestertn,  or  mllle  sester- 
tium. 

III.  In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are  denoted  either 
(1)  by  imUa  sestertium  (gen.  plur.),  or  (2)  by  sestertia  : 

Duo  mllia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces  ;  qulnque  mllia  ses- 
tertium, or  qulnque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces. 

NOTE.— With  sesUrtia  the  distributives  are  generally  used,  as,  Vina  sestertia. 

IV.  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  sestertium  with 
the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  proper  numeral  adverb,  decies, 
vlcies,  etc.     Thus — 

Decies  sestertium,    1,000,000  (10  x  100,000)  sesterces;  vlcies  sestertium, 
2,000,000  (20  x  100,000)  sesterces. 

1.  SBBTERTIUM. — In  the  examples  under  IV.,  sestertium  is  treated  as  a  neuter  noun 
in  the  singular,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius,  and  the 
full  expression  for  1,000,000  sesterces  was  Deciea  centena  mllia  sestertium .    Centfna 
mllia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sestertitim  lost  its  force  as  a  genitive 
pluraL,  and  became  a  neuter  noun  in  the  singular,  capable  of  declension. 

2.  Sometimes  sestertium  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the  numeral  adverb :  as,  decifx, 
1,000,000  sesterces. 

3.  The  sign  HS  is  often  used  for  sfjtertil,  and  sometimes  for  sestertia,  or  sestertium  : 
Decem  HS  =  10  sesterces  (HS  =  sCstertii).    D6na  HS  =  10,000  sexterce*  (HS  =  ses- 
tertia).   Decies  H8  =  1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  =  sestertium). 

648.  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.— The  following  weights  and  measures 
doserve  mention : 

I.  The  Libra,  also  called  As  or  Pvndd,  equal  to  about  11}£  ounces  avoir- 
dupois, is  the  basis  of  Roman  weights. 

I.  The  Libra,  like  the  ('in  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts. 

II.  The  Modius,  equal  to  about  a  peck,  is  the  basis  of  dry  measure. 

III.  The  AmpTu>ra,    containing  a  Roman  cubic   foot,  equivalent  to  about 
seven  gallons,  is  a  convenient  basis  of  liquid  measure. 

IV.  The  Koman  Pen  or  Foot,  equivalent  to  about  11.6  inches,  is  the  basis 
ot'long  measure. 

NOTK.— Cubitut  is  equivalent  to  1  #  Roman  feet,  pasinui  to  5,  and  stadium  to  625. 


380 


APPENDIX. 


V.  The  Jugerum,  coutaiuing  28,800  Roman  square  feet,  equivalent  to 
about  six  tenths  of  an  ncre,  is  the  basis  of  square  measure. 

V.  ROMAN  NAMES. 

64Q.  -A-  Human  citizen  usually  had  three  names.  The  first,  or  prae- 
nrimen,  designated  the  individual;  the  second,  or  nomen,  the  yens  or  tribe; 
and  the  third,  or  cognomen,  the  family.  Thus,  Puh/ius  Corntlivs  Sclpio 
was  PuMius  of  the  SclpiS  family  of  the  Cornelian  gens,  and  G'H'US  Jf/lius 
Caesar  was  Gaius  of  the  Caesar  family  of  the  Julian  gens. 

1.  The  praenomen  was  often  abbreviated  : 


S.  (Sex.)  =  Sextus. 

Ser.  =  Servius. 

Sp.  =  Spurius. 

T.  =  Titus. 

Ti.  (Tib.)  =  Tiberius. 


A.  =  Aulus.  M.  =  Marcus. 

Ap.  =  Appius.  M'.  =  Munius. 

C.  =  Gains.  Mam.  =  Mamercus. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus.                    N.  =  Numerius. 

D.  =  Decimus.  P.  =  Publius. 

L.  =  Lucius.  Q.  (Qu,)  =  Quintus. 

2.  Sometimes  an  agndmen  or  surname  was  added.      Thus  SclpiS  received 
the  surname  Africdnus'from  his  victories  in  Africa  :  Publius  Cornelius  S&pifi 
Africanus. 

3.  An  adopted  son  took  (1)  the  full  name  of  his  adoptive  father,  and  (2) 
an  agnomen  in  anus  formed  from  the  name  of  his  own  gens.    Thus  Octavim 
when  adopted  by  Caesar  became   Gains  Julius  Caesar  Octavianm.     After- 
ward the  title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  upon  him,  making  his  full  name 
O&ius  Julius  Caesar  Octaviamis  Augustus. 

4.  Women  were  generally  known  by  the  name  of  their  gens.    Thus  the 
daughter  of  Julius  Caesar  was  simply  Julia  ;  of  Tullius  Cicero,  Tullia  ;  of 
Cornelius  Sclpio,  Cornelia.    Three  daughters  in  any  family  of  the  Cornelian 
gens  would  be  known  as  Cornelia,  Cornelia  Secunda  or  Minor,  and  Cornelia 
Tertia. 


650.   Various  abbrev 
A.  D.  =  ante  diem. 
Aed.  =  aedilis. 
A.  U.  C.  =  anno  urbis 

conditae. 
Cos.  =  consul. 
Coss.  =  consulfis. 
D.  =  divus. 
D.  D.  =  dono  dedit. 
Des.  =  designatus. 
D.  M.  =  dils  manibus. 
D.  S.  =  df;  suo. 
D.   S.    P.   P.  =  de  sua 

pecunia  posuit. 
Eq.    Rom.  =  eques  Ro- 

manus. 
F.  =  fllius. 


iations  occur  in  classical 
F.   C.  =  faciendum  cii- 

ravit. 

Id.  =  Idus. 
Imp.  =  imperfltor. 
K.  (Kal.)  =  Kalendae. 
Leg.  =  ICgatus. 
Non.  =  Nonae. 
O.   M.  =  optimus  mfix- 

imus. 
P.  C.  =  patres  conscrlp- 

tl. 
Pont.    Max.  =  pontifey 

maximus. 
P.    R.  =    populus    R6- 

mftnus. 
Pr.  =  praetor. 


authors  : 

Praef.  =  praefectus. 
Proc.  =  proconsul. 
Q.  B.  F.F.  Q.S.  =quod 

bonum,    felTx,    faus- 

tumque  sit. 
Quir.  =  Quirltes. 
Resp.  =  res  pnblica. 
S.  =  senatus. 
S.  C.  =  senatus  c&usul- 

tum. 
S.  D.  P.  =  sal  fit  era  dicit 

plurimam. 
S.    P.    Q.    R.  =  senatus 

popul  usque  Roman  us. 
Tr.  PI.  =  tribunus   pl6- 

bis. 


APPENDIX.  381 

VI.  VOWELS  BEFORE  TWO  CONSONANTS  OR  A  DOUBLE  CONSONANT. 

651.  On  the  natural  quantity1  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  or  a. 
double  consonant,  observe — 

I.  That  vowels  are  long  before  ns,  nf,  gn,  gin,  and  generally  before  j  : 
conscius,  consensus,  consul,  inscribe,  insequor,  instaus,  insula,  amans, 

inonens,  regens,  auditing  ;  confero,  conflcio,  infelix,infeusus,  infero;  benig- 
nus,  magnus,  regnum,  signum,  agmen,  segmentum,  hujus. 

II.  That  all  vowels  which  represent  diphthongs,  or  are  the   result   of 
contraction,  are  long  : a 

existimo,  amasse,  audissem,  intrSrsum,*  intr6rsu8,pr5rsus,qu6rsuin,  rur- 
sum,  sursuin,  malle,  miillem,  nolle,  nollem,  nullus,  ullus,3  Mars,*  Martis. 

III.  That  the  long  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives — 

1.  In  asco,  esco,  and  isco  in  Inceptives : 

gelasco,  labasco,  acesco,  aresco,  florfisco,  latesco,  patesco,  silesco, 
virf-sco,  edormlsco,  obdormlsco,  scisco,  cOnscisco. 

2.  In  large  classes  of  words  of  which  the  following  are  examples  : 

cras-tinus,  due-tills,  fas-tus,  ue-fas-tus,  flos-culus,  jus-tus,  in-jus-tus, 
jus-tissimus,  jus-titia,  matr-imouium,  6s-culum,  os-culor,  os-tium,  palus- 
ter,  ras-trum,  r6s-trum,  rus-ticus,  sallc-tum. 

IV.  That  vowels  are  long  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular  of 
nouns  and  adjectives  with  long  increments  in  the  Genitive : 

frux,  Itlx,  lux,  pax,  plt-bs,  rex,  thorax,  vox. 

V.  That  e  is  long  before  x  in  the  Perfect  Active  in  exi  : 

rfixi,  rfixit ;  texl,  t€xerunt ;  vexl,  vexitnus  ;  diltlxit,  dilCxfirunt. 

>  Itls  often  di  Hie  nit.  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible,  to  determine  the  natural 
qnantiiyof  vowels  before  two  consonants,  but,  the  subject  has  of  late  received  special 
attention  from  German  orthoepists.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  article  to  colled 
the  most  important  results  of  these  labors.  The  chief  sources  of  information  upon  this 
snbjectare  (1)  ancient  inscriptions,  (2)  Greek  transcriptions  of  Latin  words,  (3)  the  tes- 
timony of  ancient  grammarians,  (4)  the  modern  languages,  (5)  the  comic  poets,  and  (6) 
etymology.  Kee  Brngmann/Grundrissder  Vergleichendon  Grmnmatik';  OsthofF/Zur 
Geschlchtedes Perfects  im  Indo-germanischcn  ';  Heelm din,  'Die  AiiKsprache  dot*  La- 
tein';  Stolz, '  Lateinische  Grammatik';  Vanicek. '  Etymolojjlsches  \VOrierbucli  derlu- 
teinischenSpraclie';  Bouterwekuntl  Tegge, '  Die  altsprncliliehe  Orthoepie  ';  Biinger, 
'  DielateinUche  Quantitat  in  positionelaugen  Silt>en  ';  Wiggert, '  Znrlateinischen  Or- 
thoepie'  ;  Marx,  'Die  Auscprache  clcr  lateinischen  Vocale  in  po-Mtionslancen  Silbon  ' ; 
Schmitz,  '  Beitriige ';  Kitsch], '  Rlieinisches  Museum.'  vol.  xxxi.,  pp.  481-192  ;  SchOll, 
'  ActaSocietfltisPhilologaeLipslCnsis,'  vol.  vi.,  pp. 71-215:  Mdller,  '  Ortliograpliiaect 
ProsOdiaeLatTnaeSurnmarium';  Foerster.'Rheinisches  Museum, 'xxxiii.,  pp.  201 -2!K». 

5  Though,  like  other  long  vowels,  they  were  probably  sometimes  shortened  before 
certain  consonants :  duOrum,  dnflm,dnum  :  nostrOrnm,  nostrOni,  nostrum  ;  see  VII. 
below,  also  580,  II. 

*  Intrdrgum  from  intr&verwm  ;  QUne  from  tlnuliis ;  M8,n  from  Mavort. 


382 


APPENDIX. 


VI.  That  long  vowels  occur  in  the  following  words  and  in  their  deriva 
tives : 


actifc 

fllctus 

nuntius 

rostrum 

actito 

flixi 

nupsl 

sescentl 

actor 

forma 

nuptiae 

sestertius 

fictum 

formosus 

n  upturn 

Sestius 

actus 

fractus 

nutrid 

structor 

anxiu:- 

fructus 

nutrtx 

structflra 

aratrum 

illustris 

6rdior 

structus 

arde6 

junctiC 

6rdo 

struxi 

atrium 

junctus 

ornamentum 

sumpsl 

axilla 

junxl 

6rno 

sumptus 

bestia 

lectit£> 

Ostia 

taxillus 

bus  turn 

lector 

oetium 

tector 

calumnia 

lectus 

pastor 

tectus 

capesso 

lictor 

pastua 

trlstis 

classis 

luctor 

paxiilus 

ulterior 

compsl 

luctus 

Pollio 

ultimun 

comptus 

luxl 

prlnceps 

ultra 

crlspus 

lustro 

prlscue 

unctid 

cunctus 

lustrum 

prOmpsi 

unctito 

custodio 

Marcus 

prOmptUB 

unctor 

custos 

maxilla 

proplnquus 

unctura 

dSlormis 

maximus 

punctus 

unctus 

dlxl 

mllle 

purge 

unxi 

duxl 

mlstus 

quartue 

ustus 

ebrius 

mixtus 

qulnque 

usurpo 

6mpti6 

narrO 

quintus 

Vestinus 

emptus 

nascor 

rastrum 

vfixillum 

facesso 

Ndrba 

recti6 

vlctus 

festus 

norma 

rector 

villa 

Festus 

nosco 

rectus 

Vlpsanius 

festlvus 

nundinae 

Boscius 

vlxl 

VII.  That  vowels  are  probably  short  before  nt  and  nd  • 

amant,  amantis,  monentis,  prudentis,  prudentia,  amandus,  regendus. 

VIII.  That  the  short  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives : 
inter-nus,  juven-tus,  llber-tas,  munus-culum,  super-bus,  vir-tus. 

IX.  That  vowels  are  generally  short  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative 
Singular  of  nouns  and  adjectives  with  short  increments  in  the  Genitive: 

adeps,  calix,  dux,  grex,  hiems,  jtidex,  nex,  nux. 
Nor*.— Vowels  before  final  ns  are  of  course  excepted. 

X.  That  the  first  vowel  in  the  following  endings  is  short  • 

1.  ernus   ernius,  erninus ;  urnus,  urnius,  urnlnus  . 
maternus,  Liternius,  Llterninus,  taciturnus,  Saturnius,  Saturninus. 

2.  ustus,  estus.  ester,  estis,  esticus,  estinus.  estris  • 

robustus,   venustus,  vetustus,  honestus,  modestus,  campester,  Silvester, 
agrestis,  caelestis,  domesticus,  clandestlnus,  terrestris. 

XI.  That  all  vowels  are  to  be  treated  aa  short  unless  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


INDEX    OF    VERBS. 


THIS  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the  simpk 
rerbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities,  but  also 
of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention.  In  regard  to 
compounds  of  prepositions  (344)  observe — 

1.  That  the  elements — preposition  and  verb — often  appear  in  the  com- 
pound in  a  changed  form  ;  see  344,  4-6, 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine ; 
see  221. 

Al-lici&,  ere,  lexi,  Icctum,  217,  2 ;  p. 

130,  foot-note  8. 

Alo,  ere,  alui,  alitum,  altum,  278. 
Amb-igo ;  see  agd,  271,  2. 
Amb-io,  295,  N.  2. 
Amicio,  Ire,  ul  (xi),  turn,  285. 
Amo,  205. 

Amplector,  I,  amplexus  sum,  283. 
Ango,  ere,  anxi,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
An-nu6,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Ante-capi6,  p.  128,  foot-note  14 
Apage,  def.,  297,  III. 
Aperio,  ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 
AplBcor,  i,  aptus  sum,  283. 
Ap-pareo;  see  pared,  262;  301. 
Ap-pet6 ;  see  pelo,  278. 
Ap-plic6;  see  plied,  258. 
Ap-p&no;  scepdnd,  273. 
Arcisso,  ere,  IvI,  Hum,  278. 
Arded,  ere,  arsi,  arsutn,  265. 
Aresco,  ere,  iirul,  — ,  281. 
Arguo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Ar-ripid;  see  rapid,  274. 
A-Bcendo ;  see  scandd,  272,  8. 
A-spergo ;  see  spargd,  270. 
A-spicio,  ere,  spexl,  spcctum,  217,  2 
As-sentior,  Irt,  sensus  sum,  288,  2 
As-sideo ;  see  seded,  267,  2. 
At-texc  ;  see  texd,  274. 
At-tined;  see  tened,  263. 
At-ting6;  see  tango,  271. 
At-tollo ;  see  (olio,  271. 
Audeo,  ere,  ausus  sum,  268,  8. 
Audio,  211. 
Au-fer6,  292,  ?,. 
Augeo,  ere,  auxi,  auctum,  264. 
Ave,  aef.  ;  see  havr,  2!»7,  III. 


Ab-dS,1  ere,  didl;  ditum,  271. 

Ab-iei6i  wejacw,  271,  2. 

Ab-igO  ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 

Aboleft,  ere,  evi,  itum,  p.  124,  foot- 
note 2. 

Abolfesco,  ere,  olevl,  olitum,  277. 

Ab-ripi6;  see  rapid.  274. 

Abs-condo ;  see  abao,  271. 

Ab-suin,  290,  I. 

Ac-cendo,  ere,  I,  censum,  272,  8. 

Ac-cido  ;  see  cado,  272;  301. 

Ac-cin6  ;  see  cand,  271. 

Ac-cipiO  ;  see  capid,  271,  2. 

Ac-col6 ;  see  cold,  274. 

Ac-cumbo,  ere,  cubul,  cubitum,  273. 

Acesco,  ere,  acui,  — ,  281. 

Ac-qulro  ;  see  yuaero,  278. 

Acuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Ad-d(-> ;  see  abdo}  271 ;  255,  1.,  4. 

Ad-tari,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 

Ad-fer6,  292,  2. 

Ad-imo;  see  emd,  271,  2. 

Ad-iplscor,  i,  adeptus  sum,  283,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ad-olesco  ;  see  abolescd,  277. 

Ad-orior ;  see  orior,  288,  2. 

Ad-spicio ;  see  aspicio,  217,  2. 

Ad-sto,  259,  N.  2. 

Ad-sum,  290,  I. 

Ag-gredior ;  see  gradior,  281 

A-gnosco ;  see  ndscd,  278. 

Ago,  ere,  egl,  actum,  271,  2 

Ai6,  def.,  297,  11. 

Albe6,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

Alged,  ere,  alsi,  — ,  265. 


1  Final  n  ID  verbs  ie  (ometlinei  shortened,  though  rarely  in  tha  best  wr<t«rt 


364 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


8 

Balbutio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  8. 
Batuo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Bibo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Blandior,  Iri,  HUH  sum,  288. 


Cad64  ere,  cecidi,  casum,  272. 
Caecuti6,  ire,  — .  284,  N.  2. 
Caedo,  ere,  cecldi,  caesura,  272. 
Calesco,  ere,  calul,  — ,  281. 
Calves,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Candeo,  ere,  ui.  262,  N.  1. 
Cando,  p.  129,  foot-note  14. 
Caned,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Cano,  ere,  cecinl,  cantum,  271. 
CapBsso,  ere,  Ivl,  Hum,  278. 
Capio,  ere,  cepi,  captum,  217 ;  218 ; 

271,  2. 

Carpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  269. 
Caveo,  ere.  cavl,  cautum,  266. 
CSdo,  ere,  ccssi,  cessum,  270. 
Cedo,  def.,  297,  III. 
Cell6,  obs. ;  see  excello,  273,  N. 
Cen6,  257,  N.  2. 
Censeo,  ere,  ui,  censum,  268. 
Cern6,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 
Cieo,  ere,  civi,  citum,  265,  N. 
Cing6,  ere,  cinxi,  cinctum,  269. 
Cio,  265,  N. 

Circum-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Circum-do,  255,  I.,  4;  259,  N.  1. 
Circum-sisto ;  see  sisto,  271. 
Circum-sto,  255,  I.,  4. 
Clango,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Claudo,  ere,  clausi,  clausum,  270. 
Claudo,  ere,  —  (to  be  lame),  272,  N.  2. 
Co-arguo ;  see  arguo,  279. 
Co-emo,  p.  128,  foot-note  15. 
CoepI,  def.,  297. 
Co-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 
C6go,  ere,  coegi,  coactum:  see  ago. 

271,  2. 

Col-lido ;  see  latdo,  270. 
Col-ligo;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Col-luceo ;  see  liiceo,  265. 
Col6,  ere,  ui,  cultum,  274. 
Com-edo,  291,  N.  3. 
Com-minlscor,  i,  commentus  sum,  283. 
Com-moveo ;  see  moved,  266. 
Com-parco  (perco) ;  Bee  pared,  272. 
Comperio,  ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Compesco,  ere,  pescui,  — ,  273,  N. 
Com-pingo;  seepango,  271. 
Com-plector.  I,  plexus  sum. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  evl,  etum;  261. 
Com-prim6 ;  see  premd,  270. 
Com-pungo,  ere,    punxl,   puiictum ; 
,  271. 


Con-cid6 ;  see  cadd,  272. 
Con-cldo ;  see  caedd,  272. 
Con-oino ;  see  cand,  271. 
Con-cludo ;  see  claudo,  270. 
Con-cupisco,    ere,  cuplvi,    oupltum, 

281,  N. 

Con-cutio ;  see  quatid,  270. 
Con-do;  see  abdo,  271. 
Con-fercio ;  seefarcid,  286. 
C6n-fero,  292,  2. 
C&n-fici6 ;  see/add,  271,  2. 
C6n-fit,  def.,  297,  III. 
Con-fiteor;  seefateor,  268,  2. 
C6n-fringo;  see  frangd,  271,  2. 
Con-gruo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
COnlveo,    ere,    nivl,    nixi,  — ,  265; 

267,  3. 
Conor,  260. 

Cdn-sero;  see  tero,  277,  N. 
Con-sisto;  see  sistd,  271. 
Con-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  817, 2. 
C6n-stituo ;  see  statud,  279. 
Con-sto,  301 ;  see  sto,  259. 
Consulo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  274. 
Con-temno ;  see  temnd,  272,  N.  2. 
Con-texO ;  see  texo,  274. 
Con-tingo ;  see  tango,  271;  301. 
Convalesce,  ere,valul,  valitum,  281,  N. 
Coquo,  ere,  coxl,  coctum. 
Cor-ripio ;  see  rapid,  274. 
Cor-ruo ;  see  rub,  279. 
CrebrSsco,  ere,  crebrui,  — ,  282,  N. 
Credo,  ere,  crcdidi,  creditum,  271. 
Crepo,  are,  ui,  Hum,  258. 
Cresco,  ere,  crevi.  cretum,  277. 
Cubo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Cudo,  ere,  cudi,  cusum,  272,  3. 
Cumbo ;  see  accumbo,  273. 
Cupio,  ere,  Ivl,  itum,  217, 1 ;  278. 
CurrO,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  272. 

D 

Debeo,  262. 

De-cerpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  p.  127,  foot 

note  2. 

Decet,  impers.,  299. 
De-do;  see  abdo,  271. 
De-fend6,  ere,  I,  fen»um,  272,  8. 
De-fetlscor ;  seefatftcor,  288. 
De-fit,  def.,  297,  III. 
Dego,  ere,  degi ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Delecto,  impers.,  301. 
Deleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
De-ligo ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
D6-mico ;  see  mico,  258. 
Demo,  ere,  dempsi,  demptuna 
D6-pango ;  see  pango,  271. 
De-primo ;  see  premd,  270. 
DepsO,  ere,  ui,  itum,  turn,  278. 
Di-scendo  ,  see  u-<m*dt  272,  8 


INDEX  OP   VERBS. 


385 


De-silip ;  see  solid,  285. 

De-sipi6 ;  see  sapid,  278. 

De-sum,  290, 1. 

De-tendo ;  see  tendd,  271. 

De-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 

De-vertor;  see  vertd,  272,  3. 

Dico,  ere,  dlxl,  dictum,  238. 

Dif-fero,  292,  2. 

Di-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 

Di-ligo ;  see  legd,  271,  2 

Di-mico ;  see  micd,  258. 

D'-rigo.    ere,  rexl,  rectum,   p.   127, 

foot-note  2. 

DiscO,  ere,  didicl,  — ,  271. 
Dis-orepo ;  see  crepd,  258. 
Dis-cuinbo;  see  accumbd,  273. 
Dis-pertior ;  see  partior,  288. 
Dis-pliceo ;  see  placed,  262. 
Dis-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Dl-stinguo ;  see  exstingub^  269. 
Dl-sto,  259,  N.  2. 
DitSsco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Dlvido,  ere,  vlsl.  visum,  270. 
Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  259. 
Doceo,  ere,  ul,  doctum,  263. 
Dolet,  imperg,,  301. 
Domft,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Dono,  259. 

Dflco,  ere,  duxl,  ductum,  269  ;  238. 
Dulcesco,  ere,  — .  282. 
Duplico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Diiresco,  ere,  durul,— ,  282,  N. 

E 

Pdo,  ere,  edl,  esura,  272,  2;  291. 
Ef-farl,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 
Egeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
E-Hcio,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
R-ligo ;  see  legd,  271,  2. 
K-raico ;  see  micd,  258. 
fimineo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Emo,  ere,  eml,  emptum,  271,  2. 
E-neco,  are,  ul,  turn,  258. 
Eo,  Ire,  I vl,  itum,  295. 
Ksurio,  ire,  — ,  Hum,  284,  N.  2. 
E-vado,  ere,  vasl,  vasum,  270. 
Ex-ardescd,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  281,  N. 
Excello.  ere,  ui  (rare),  — ,  273,  N. 
Ex-clud& ;  see  claudd,  270. 
Ex-curro;  see  currd,  272. 
Ex-olese<> ;  see  abolisco,  277. 
Expergiscor,  I,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  Irl,  pertus  sum,  288,  2. 
Ex-pleO ;  see  compleo,  261. 
Ex-plico ;  see  pfacd,  258. 
Ex-pl6do  ;  see  plaudo,  270. 
Ex-stinguo,  ere,  stinxl,  stinctum,  269. 
Ex-sto,  259,  N.  2. 
Ex-tendo  ;  see  tendd,  271. 
Ex-tollo  ;  see  tollo.  271. 


FacSsso,  ere,  IvI,  I,  Itum,  278. 
FaciO,  ere,  feel,  factum,  217,  1:  238: 

271,2. 

Fallo,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  272. 
Farcio,  Ire,  farsl,  fartum,  farctum,  286 
Fan,  def.,  297,  II. 
Fateor,  erl,  fassus  sum.  268,  2. 
Fatisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Fatiscor,  1,  — ,  283. 
Faveo,  ere,  favl,  fautum,  266. 
FendO,  obs.  ;  see  defendo,  272,  8 
Ferio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Fero,  ferre,  tull,  l;itum,  292. 
Ferocio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Ferveft,  ere,  fervl,  ferbul,  — ,  267, 1. 
Fld5,  ere,  flsus  sum,  283. 
Fig6,  ere,  fixi,  flxum,  270. 
Findft,  ere,  fidl,  flssum,  272,  8. 
Fingo,  ere,  finxl,  fictum. 
FlniO,  284. 

Flo,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294 
Flavefi,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Flecto,  ere,  flexl,  tiexum,  270. 
Fle6,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
Floreo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Floresco,  ere,  florul,  — ,  281. 
Fluo,  ere,  fluxl,  fluxum,  279,  N. 
Fodi6,  ere,  fodl,  fossum,  217, 1 ;  272,  2. 
Forem,  def.,  204,  2;  297,  111,  2. 
Foveo,  ere,  fovi,  fotum,  266. 
Frango,  ere,  fregl,  fractum,  271,  2. 
Fremo,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
Frendo,  ere,  — ,  frcssum,  fresum,  270. 
Frico,  are,  ul,  atum,  turn,  258. 
Frigeo,  ere,  frlxl  (rare),  — .  265. 
Frondeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Fruor,  I,  frflctus,  fruitus  Hum,  288. 
Fugio,  ere,  fugl,   fugituoi,   217,   1 ; 

271,  2. 

Fulcio,  ire,  fulsl,  fultum,  286. 
Fulgeo,  ere,  fulsl,  — ,  265. 
Fulg<"),  265,  foot-note  5. 
Fulminat,  impers.,  300. 
Fundo,  ere,  ffldl,  lusum,  272,  2. 
Fungor,  I,  functus  sum,  288, 
Furo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  273,  N. 

G 

GanniA,  Ire,  -,  284,  N.  2. 
GaudeO,  ere,  gavinus  sum,  268,  •. 
Gemo,  ere,  u  ,  itum,  273. 
Gero,  ere,  gessl,  gcstum,  269. 
Gigno,  ere,  genui,  genitum,  273. 
Gllscp,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Gradior,  I,  gresHus  sum,  217,  8;  288 
GrandSsco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Grandinat,  impern.,  3(K). 
(iravesco,  ere.  — 


386 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


H 

Habed,  262. 

Haereo,  ere,  haesl,  haesum,  265. 

Haurio,  Ire,  hausl,  haustum,  haustu- 

rus,  hausurus,  286. 
Have,  def.,  297,  III. 
Hebe6,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Hlsco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
HonorO,  257. 

Horreo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Hoi-tor,  232 ;  260. 
HflmeO,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 


IcO,  ere,  Id,  ictum,  272,  3. 
I-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 
Il-licio,  ere,  lexl.  lectum,  217,  2. 
Il-lld6 ;  see  laedo,  270. 
Imbuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 
Immineo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Im-parco  ;  see  pared,  272. 
Im-pertior;  seepartior,  288. 
Im-pingo ;  see  pango,  271. 
Im-pleO,  p.  124,  foot-note  1. 
In-cendO ;  see  accendd,  272,  3. 
Ineesso,  ere,  Ivl,  1,  — ,  278. 
In-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
In-cido ;  see  caedo,  272. 
In-crepo ;  see  crepo,  258. 
In-cresco ;  see  crescd,  277. 
In-cumbO ;  see  accumbo,  273. 
In-cutio ;  see  quatio,  270. 
Ind-igeo, ere, ul,  — ;  see eged, 262,  N.I. 
Ind-iplscor ;  see  apiscor,  283. 
In-do;  see  abdd,  271. 
Indulged,  ere,  dulsl,  dultum,  264. 
Ineptio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
In-fero,  292,  2. 
Intit,  def.,  297,  III. 
Ingruo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
In-notesco,  ere,  notui,  282,  N. 
In-olescO :  see  abolesm,  277. 
Inquam,  def.,  297,  II. 
In-sidep ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
In-spicio,  ere,  spexl,  spectum. 
In-sto ;  see  sto,  259. 
Intel-lego;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Interest,  impers.,  301. 
Jnter-nQsco ;  see  nosed,  278.  • 
In-veterasco,  ere,  ravl,  ratuni,  281,  N. 
Irascor,  I,  — ,  283. 
Ir-ruo  ;  see  rud,  279. 


JaciO,  ere,  J8cl,  jactum,  217, 1 ;  271,  2. 

JubeO,  ere,  jussl,  jussum,  265. 

Juro,  257,  N.  2. 

JuvenescO,  ere,  — . 

Juvo,  are,  juvl,  jfltuin,  259;  2 ;  301. 


Labor,  I,  lapsus  sum,  283. 

LacessO,  ere,  Ivl,  Itum,  278. 

Lacio,  obs. ;  see  allicio,  p.  130,  foot- 
note 8 ;  217,  2. 

Lacteo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Laedo,  ere,  laesl,  laesum,  270. 

Lambo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Langued,  ere,  I,  — ,  267,  3. 

Largior,  irl,  itus  sum,  288. 

Lateo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Lavo,  are,  lavl,  lautum,  lotum,  lavfi- 
tum,  259,  2. 

LegO,  ere,  legl,  lectum,  271,  2. 

Lemo,  284. 

LlberO,  257. 

Libet,  impers.,  299. 

Liceor,  erl,  itus  sum,  268. 

Licet,  impers.,  299. 

Lino,  ere,  llvl,  levl,  litum,  278. 

LinquO,  ere,  llqul,  — ,  271,  2. 

Liqueo,  ere,  liqui  (licul),  267. 

Liquet,  impers.,  299. 

Liquor,  1,  — ,  283. 

Loquor,  1,  locutus  sum,  283. 

Luceo,  ere,  luxl,  — ,  265. 

Lucgscit,  impers.,  300. 

Ltido,  ere,  lusl,  lusum,  270. 

Lugeo,  ere,  luxl,  — ,  265. 

Luo,  ere,  lul,  — . 

M 

MacrescO,  ere,  macrul,  — ,  282,  N. 

MadeO,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  .N.  1. 

Madesco,  ere,  madul, — . 

Maereo.  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

MalO,  malle,  malul,  — ,  293. 

MandO,  ere,  I,  mansum,  272,  3. 

ManeO,  6re,  mansl,  mansum,  265. 

Maturesco,  ere,  maturul,  — ,  282,  N. 

Medeor,  erl,  — ,  268,  2. 

Meminl,  def.,  297,  1. 

Mentior,  Iii,  Itus  sum,  288. 

Mereor,  erl,  itus  sum,  268. 

Mergo,  ere,  mersl,  mersum,  270. 

Metior,  Irl,  inensus  sum,  288,  2. 

MetO,  ere,  messul,  messum,  275. 

Metu6,  ere,  ul,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Mico,  are,  ul,  — ,  258. 

Minlscor,  obs.  ;  see  comminiscor,  283. 

Minuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 

Mlror,  260. 

Misced,  ere,  miscul,  mlstum,  nilxtum, 

263. 

Misereor,  ert,  itus  or  tus  sum,  268,  2. 
Miseret,  impers.,  299. 
Mltesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
MittO,  ere,  mis!,  missum,  270. 
Mclior,  Irl,  Itus  sum,  288. 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


387 


Molleao6,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Molo,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
Moneo,  ere,  ul,  itum,  207 ;  262. 
Mordeo,  ere,  momordl,  moreum,  267. 
Morior,  I  (Irt),  mortuus  sum,  217,  3; 

283. 

MoveO,  ere,  movl,  motum,  266. 
Mulceo,  ere,  mulsl,  mulsum,  265. 
Mulgeo.  ere,  raulsl,  mulsum,  265. 
Multiplied,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Munio,  284. 

N 
Nanclscor,  I,  nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

283. 

Nascor,  I,  natus  sum,  283. 
Neco,  p.  123,  foot-note  4. 
Necto,  ere,  n5xl,  nexul,  nexum,  270 ; 

275. 
Neg-legS,  ere,  lexl,  lectum ;  see  lego, 

271,2. 

Ned,  ere,  nevi,  netum,  261. 
Ne-queo,  Ire,  ivl,  itum,  296. 
Nigresco,  ere,  nigrul,  — . 
Ningo,  ere,  nlnxl,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Niteo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Nitor,  i,  nlsus,  nlxus  sum,  283. 
Noceo,  262. 

Nolo.  nolle,  nolul,  — ,  293. 
Nommo,  257. 

Nosco,  ere,  n6vl,  notum,  278. 
Nubo,  ere,  nupsl,  nuptum,  269. 
NapturiO,  Ire,  Ivl,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 

O 

Ob-do;  seeatad,  271. 

Ob-dormlsco,  ere,  dormlvl,  dormltum. 

281,  N. 

OblivlMor,  I,  oblltus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mfitSsco,  ere,  mutul,  — ,  282,  N. 
Ob-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Ob-Bolesc6 ;  see  abolescd,  277. 
Ob-sto :  see  std,  259. 
Ob-suraJsco,  ere,  surdul,  — . 
Ob-tineo ;  see  tened,  263. 
Oc-cid6 ;  see  cadd,  272. 
Oc-cldo ;  see  caedd,  272. 
Oc-cino ;  see  can6}  271. 
Oc-cipio ;  see  capw,  271,  2. 
Occulo,  ere,  ul,  turn,  274. 
OdI.  def.,  297,  I. 
Of-fendo ;  see  defendo,  272,  8. 
Of-fero,  292,  2. 
Oleo,  ere.  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Olesco,  obsolete  ;  see  abolescd,  277. 
Operio,  Ire,  ul,  turn,  285. 
Oportet,  impers.,  299. 
Op-perior,  Irt,  pertus,  petltua  sum, 

288,  2. 
Ordior,  Irt,  ftrsus  sum,  288,  2. 


Orior,  Iri,  ortus  sum,  288,  2. 
Os-tendo ;  see  tendo,  271. 
Ovat,  dtf.,  297,  III. 

P 

Pacfscor,  I,  pactus  sum,  283. 
Paenitet,  impers.,  299. 
Palleo,ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Pando,  ere,  I,  pansum,  passum,  272,  3. 
Pango,  ere,  pepigl,  pactum,  271. 
Pango,  ere,  panxi,    pegi,   panctum, 

pactum,  271. 
Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsutn, 

272. 

Pareo,  ere,  ul,  itum,  262. 
Pario,  ere,  j>eperl,  partum,  217,  1 ; 

271. 

Partior,  Irt,  Itus  sum,  288. 
Parturio,  Ire,  ivl,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Pasco,  ere,  pavl,  pastum,  276. 
Pated,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Patior,  I,  passus  sum,  217,  3 ;  283. 
Paved,  ere,  pavl,  — ,  266. 
Pecto,  ere,  pexl,  pexum,  270. 
Pel-lici6,  ere,  lexl,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Pello,  ere,  pepull,  pulsum,  272. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependl,  pensum,  267 
Pendo,  ere,  pependl,  pensum,  272. 
Per-ag6,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Per-cell6 ;  see  excello,  273,  N. 
Per-censeO ;  see  censed,  263. 
Per-do,  ere,  didl.  ditum :   see  aftod 

271. 
P5rg°  (for  per-rigO),  ere,  perrexl 

perrectum  ;  see  regd,  269. 
Per-petior ;  see  patior,  283. 
Per-st^ :  see  sto,  259. 
Per-taedet,  p.  143;  foot-note  8. 
Per-tine6 ;  see  tenet),  263. 
Pessum-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Petn,  ere,  Ivl,  Itum,  278. 
Piget,  impers.,  299. 
PingO,  ere,  plnxl,  plctum. 
Plnso  (plafi),  ere,  I,    ul,    plnsitum, 

plstum,  plnsum,  272,  3;  273. 
Placeo,  262;  301. 
Plaudo,  ere,  si,  sum,  270. 
Plecto,  ere,  plexl,  plexum,  270. 
Plector ;  see  amplector,  283. 
Pleo,  obsolete  ;  see  com  pled,  261 . 
Plico,  are,  avl,  ul,  atum,  itum,  258.  ' 
PluO,  ere,  I  or  pluvl,  — ,  272,  h-  1 

300. 

PolleO,  t-re,  — ,  2fi2,  N.  2. 
Polliceor,  en,  itus  sum,  268. 
POnO,  ere,  posul,  positum,  278. 
Posco,  ere,  poposcl,  — ,  272. 
Pos-sideo ;  see  seded,  267,  2. 
Possum,  posse,  potul,  — ,  290,  IL 
Potior,  Iri,  Hus  sum,  288, 


388 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


Poto,  are,  avl,  atum,  um,  257,  N.  1. 
Prae-cino ;  see  cano,  271. 
Prae-currp ;  see  curro,  272. 
Prae-sideo  ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Prae-sto ;  see  sto,  259  ;  301. 
Prae-sum,  290,  I. 
Prae-vertor  ;  see  v^rto,  272,  3. 
Praudeo,  ere,  1,  pransum,  267,  3. 
Prehendo,  ere,  I,  hensum,  272,  3. 
Premo,  ere,  pressl,  pressum,  270. 
Prendo,  p.  130,  foot-note  1. 
Prod-igo  ;  see  ago,  271. 
Pro-do ;  see  abdo,  271. 
Proflciscor,  1,  profectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-fiteor;  seefateor,  268,  2. 
Promo,  ere,  prompsi,  promptum. 
Pro-sum,  prodesse,  profui,  — ,  290, 

Pro-tendo ;  see  tendo,  271. 

Psallo,  ere,  1,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Pudet,  impers.,  299. 

Puerasco,  ere,  — ,  282. 

Pugno,  257. 

Pungo,  ere,  pupugl,  puiictum,  271. 

PCinio,  284. 


Quaero,ere,  quaeslvl,quae6itum,  278. 

Quaeso,  def.,  297,  III. 

Quatio,  ere,  quassl,  quassum,  217, 1 : 

270. 

Queo,  ire,  Ivi,  itum,  296. 
Queror,  I,  questus  sum,  283. 
Quiesco,  ere,  quievl,  quietum,  277. 

R 

Rado,  ere,  rasl,  rasum,  270. 
Rapio1ere,rapui,  raptum,  217,1;  274. 
Raucio,  ire,  rausl,  rausum,  287. 
Re-censeo ;  see  censed,  263. 
Re  cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Re-cldo ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Re-crudesco,  ere,  crudul,  282,  N. 
Red-arguo  ;  see  argud,  279. 
Red-do ;  see  a&do,  271. 
Re-fello  ;  see/ate,  272. 
Re-fero  ;  see  fero,  292. 
Refert,  impers.,  301. 
Rego,  ere,  rexl,  rectum,  209 ;  269. 
Re-linquo ;  see  linquo,  271.  2. 
Re  minlscor,  1,  — ,  283. 
Remdeo.  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Reor,  rerl,  ratus  sum,  268,  2. 
Re-pango ;  see  pango,  271. 
Re-parco  ;  see  parco,  272 
Re-perio,  Ire,  perl,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Re-plico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Bte-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
;  see  sapid,  278. 


Re-son  6 ;  see  sond,  258. 

Re-spergo  ;  see  spargd,  270. 

Re-spondeo,  255,  I.,  4. 

Re-tendo ;  see  tendo,  271. 

Re-tineo  ;  see  teneo,  263. 

Re-vertor  ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 

Re-vlvlsco,  ere,  vixl,vletum,  281,  N. 

RIdeo,  ere,  rlsl,  risum,  265. 

Ringor,  I,  rictus  sum,  283. 
j  Rodo,  ere,  rosl,  rosum,  270. 
'  Rorat,  impers.,  300. 

Rubeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Rudo,  ere,  ivi,  Itum,  278. 

Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  271,  2. 

Ruo,  ere,  rul,  rutum,  ruiturus,  279. 

3 

Saepio,  ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 
!  Sagio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
:  Salio,  ire,  ul  (il).  turn,  285. 
!  Salve,  def.,  297,  III. 
1  8ancio,Ire,sanxI,sancitum,  sanct.iiiii 
286. 

Sapio,  ere,  ivi,  ul,  — ,  217,  1 ;  278. 
i  Sarcio,  ire,  sarsi,  sartum,  286. 

Sat-ago ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
i  Satis-do.  259,  N.  1. 
i  Satis-facio,  p.  129,  foot-note  1. 

Scabo,  ere,  scabi,  — ,  271,  2. 
j  Scando,  ere,  di,  scansum,  272,  3. 
j  Scindo,  ere,  scidl,  scissum,  272,  3. 

Scio,  284. 

Scisco,  ere,  sclvl,  scltum,  281,  N. 

Seco,  are,  ul,  turn,  258. 

Sedeo,  ere,  sedl,  sessuni,  267. 

Se-ligo  ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 

Sentio,  ire,  sensi,  sensum,  287. 

Sepelio,  Ire,  Ivi,  sepultum,  284. 

Sequor,  I,  secutus  sum,  283. 

Sero,  ere,  sevl,  satum,  277,  N. 

Sero,  ere,  serul,  serturn,  274. 

Sldo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Sileo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 

Sisto,  ere,  stitl,  statum,  271. 

Sitio,  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 

Soleo,  ere,  solitus  sum,  268,  3. 

Solvo,  ere,  solvi,  solutum,  272,  X. 

Sono,  are,  ul,  itum,  258. 

Sorbeo,  6re,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  J. 

Sortior,  Iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Spargo,  ere,  sparsl,  sparsum  270. 

Specio,  obs.,  217,  2. 

Sperno,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  277. 

SpCrn,  257. 

Splendeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Spondeo,   ere.  spopondi,  sponsuin 
267. 

Squaleo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 


INDEX  OF    VERBS. 


389 


Statuo,  ere,  ui,  fitum,  279. 
Stern6,  ere,  strfivi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternuo,  ere,  I,  — .  272,  N.  1. 
Sterto,  ere,  ui,  — ,'  273,  N. 
Stinguo,  ere,  — ,  p.  127,  foot-note  3. 
Sto,  are,  stetl,  statum,  259. 
Strepo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Strldeo,  ere,  stridl,  — ,  267,  8. 
Stride,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Struo,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  N. 
Studeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Stupeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Suadeo,  gre,  si,  sum,  265. 
Sub-do,  ere.  didi,  ditum ;  see  abdo, 

271. 

Sub-igo ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Sub-silio ;  see  salio,  285. 
Suc-cgdo ;  see  cedo,  270. 
Suc-cendo ;  see  accendd,  272,  3. 
Suc-censeo  ;  see  censed,  263. 
Suc-cido  ;  see  cado,  272. 
Suc-cido ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Sue-crgsco  ;  see  cresco,  277. 
Sugsco,  ere,  suevi,  sugtum,  277. 
Suf-fero,  292,  2. 
Suf-ficio  ;  see/aci5,  271,  2. 
Suf-fodio ;  see/odio,  272,  2. 
Sug-gero  ;  see  gerO,  269. 
Sum,  esse,  ful,  — ,  203,  1 :  204. 
Sumo,  ere,  psl,  ptum,  269. 
Superbio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Super-jacio,  p.  129,  foot-note  2. 
Supplico,  258,  foot-note. 
Sup-pono ;  see  pOnd,  273. 
Surgo  (for  sur-rigo),   ere,  surrexl, 

surrgctum  ;  see  regO,  269. 


Taceo,  262. 

Taedet,  imjxrx.,  299. 

Tango,  ere,  tetigi,  tactum,  271. 

TeniiH),  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

TendC,  ere,  tetendl,  tentum,  tfinsum. 

271. 

Teneo,  gre,  ui,  turn,  263. 
Tepesco,  ere,  tepui,  — ,  281. 
Tergeo,   ere,  tersi,  tersum,265;  p. 

128,  foot-note  3. 
Tergo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  270. 
Tero,  ere,  trivi,  tritum,  278. 
Texo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  274. 
Timeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Tollo,  ere,  sustull,  sublatum,  271. 


Tondeo,  ere,  totondi,  tousum,  267. 
Tono,  are,  ul  (itum),  258 ;  300. 
Torpeo,  6re,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Torqueo,  gre,  torsi,  tortum,  264. 
Torreo,  gre,  torrui,  tostum,  263. 
Tra-do ;  see  abdo,  271. 
Trah  6,  ere,  traxi,  tractum,  269. 
Tremo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  273,  N. 
Tribno,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  270. 
Tueor,  erl,  tuitus,  tutus  sum,  268. 
Tundo,  ere,  tutudl,  tunsum,  tusum, 

272. 

Turgeo,  ere,  tursi  (rare),  — ,  265. 
Tusslo,  Ire,  284,  N.  2. 

U 

Ulciscor,  i,  ultus  Rum,  283. 
"rgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — ,  265. 
ro,  ere,  ussi,  ustum,  269. 
'tor,  I,  usus  sum,  283. 


Vado,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Vagio,  Ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 
Velio,  ere,  vexi,  veetum,  269. 
Velio,  ere,  velll(vulsl),vu)sum, 272,3. 
Vendo,  ere,  dial,  ditum,  271. 
Veu-eo,  295,  8. 

Venio,  Ire,  vein,  ventum,  287,  N. 
Venum-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Vereor,  erl,  veritus  sum,  268. 
Vergo,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Verro,  ere,  verri,  versum,  272,  3. 
Verio,  ere,  ti,  sum,  272,  3. 
Vertor ;  see  vcrlo,  272,  3. 
Vescor,  T,  — ,  283. 
Veterftsco,  ere,  iTivi,  — ,  276. 
Veto,  are,  ul,  itum,  258. 
Video,  Ore,  vidl,  vlsum,  267,  2. 
VIlOsco,  ere,  vllui,  — ,  282,  X. 
Vincio,  Tre,  vinxi,  vinctum,  286. 
Vinco,  ere,  vlci,  vielum,  271,  2. 
Vireo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Viresco,  ere,  virul,  — ,  281. 
Viso,  ere,  I,  um,  272,  3. 
Vivo,  ere,  vlxl,  vTctum,  2(59. 
Voco,  257. 

Volo,  velle,  volui,  —,  393. 
Volvo,  ere,  volvl,  voluiiim,  272,  3. 
Vomo,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
Voveo,  6re,  vovl,  votum,  260. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


NOTE. — The  numbers  refer  to  articles,  not  to  pages.  Ace,  or  accus,  =  accusative  ; 
vljs.  =  adjectives ;  comp.  =  composition  ;  compds.  =  compounds  ;  conj.  =  conjugation  ; 
tonjuno,  =  conjunction  ;  constr.  =  construction  ;  jf.  =  and  the  following ;  gen.  or  genit. 
=  genitive  ;  gend.  =  gender ;  ger.  =  gerund  ;  foe.  or  local.  ~  locative  ;  preps.  =  prepo- 
sitions ;  w,  =  vvitlu 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate  words  as 
may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  exceptions  as 
may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  numerous  excep- 
tions in  Dec.  III.  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best  found  under  the  respective  end- 
ings, 69-115. 


A,  a,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  A  final  short- 
ened, 21, 2.  -A  in  nom.,  accus.,  and 
voc.  pi.,  46,  2,  1).  ^1-nouns,  Decl. 
L,  48 ;  o-verbs,  205.  Nouns  in  -a, 
Decl.  III.,  69;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  L,  3;  gender,  111.  -A,  adverbs 
in,  304,  L,  3.  -A,  prepositions  in,  p. 
145,  foot-note  11 ;  p.  149,  foot-note 
2;  adverbs  in,  304,  II.,  2.  -A,-&, 
suffix,  320.  'A,  derivatives  in,  326, 
2.  A,  changed  in  compds.,  344,  4, 
N.  1.  A  or  a,  final,  580,  I. ;  580, 
in.,  -N.  2 ;  581,  III. ;  in  increm.  of 
_decl.,  585;  585, 1.;  conj.,  586;  586, 1. 

A,  ab,  abs,  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in 
compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  Ab,  as  adverb,  379,  2, 
N.  A,  ab,  abs,  with  abl.,  434 ;  434, 
L;  of  agent,  388,  2 ;  415, 1.  A,  ab, 
abs,  434,  N.  2.  A,  ab,  abs,  desig- 
nating abode,  446,  N.  4.  A,  ab,  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  L 

Abbreviations,  649,  1 ;  650. 

Abhinc,  denoting  interval,  p.  230, 
foot-note  2 ;  430,  N.  3. 

Abies,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

-abilis,  a  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

A.BLATIVE,  sing.,  original  ending  of, 
p.  20,  foot-note  5.  Abl.  sing,  in 
Decl.  III.,  62,  II.  ff.  ;  63,  2 ;  64,  N. 
3 ;  in  adjs.,  154,  notes  1  and  2;  157, 
N.  Abl.  plur.,  Decl.  L,  49,  4: 
Decl.  III.,  68,  5 ;  Decl.  IV.,  117. 

ABLATIVE,  translation  of.  48,  w.  foot- 
note 4.  Relations  denoted,  367. 
Syntax,  411  ff.  Abl.  w.  locat..  363, 
4,  2) ;  w.  adjs.,  391,  II..  3 :  400,  3 ; 


w.  refert,  408,  I.,  2:  w.  verbs  of 
accusing,  etc.,  410,  II.,  3 ;  w.  verbs 
of  condemning,  410,  III.  Abl.  of 
place,  412 ;  425,  ff. ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ff.  Abl.  w.  com- 
parat.,417.  Instrumental  abl.,  418 
ff.  Abl.  of  accompaniment,  419 ; 
means,  420.  Abl.  in  special  con- 
structions, 421.  Abl.  of  price,  422 ; 
difference,  423 ;  specification,  424. 
Locative  abl.,  425  ff.  Abl.  of  time, 
429.  Abl.  abs.,  431.  Abl.  w.  preps., 
432;  434;  435;  w.  compds.,  434, 
N.  1 ;  w.  adverbs,  437.  Infin.  in 
abl.  abs.,  439,  IV. 

Ablative  sing,  in  a,  581,  III.,  1. 

-aLrum.  a  in,  587,  L,  1. 

Abs,  in  compds.,  344,  5.  Abs  w.  abl., 
434 ;  434,  N.  2. 

Absente,  constr..  438,  6,  N. 

Absolute  Abl.,  431. 

Absolvo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Absque,  w.  alb.,  434. 

Abstineo,  constr.,  p.  211,  foot-note  5. 

Abstract  nouns,  39, 2,  2) ;  plur.,  130, 
2and  3.  Abstract  nouns  from  adjs., 
325. 

Absum,  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Abest,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Abunde,  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

-abundus,  n.  in,  587,  ill.,  2. 

-alms  for  -is,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4. 

Ac,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as,  451, 
5 ;  than,  459,  2 ;  554,  I.,  2,  N.  Ac 
si,  311,  2;  w.  subj.  in  conditions, 
513,  II. 

Acatalectic,  603,  N.  3. 

Accent,  rhythmic,  599. 

Accentuation,  17  ff. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


391 


Accidit,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

AccingO,  constr.,  377. 

Accommoddtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot- 
note 1. 

Accompaniment,  ab).  of,  418  ff. 

ACCUSATIVE,  formation  of,  Decl.  II., 
51,  2,  6);  Decl.  III.,  58,  1,  5):  62, 
II.  ff. ;  63,  1;  64,  N.  2;  67,  N.  2; 
68,  2  and  6;  in  adjs.,  154,  N.  1; 
158,  1. 

\CCUSATIVE,  syntax  of,  370  ff.  Direct 
object,  371  ff. j  cognate,  371,  I.  and 
II. :  ace.  of  effect,  371,  I.,  2,  2);  w. 
verbal  adis.  and  nouns,  371, 1.,  N. ; 
w.  compos.,  372.  Two  aces.,  373 
ff.  Predicate  ace.,  373,  1.  Poetic 
ace.,  377.  Adverbial  ace.,  378  ff'. 
Ace.  of  specification,  378  ;  of  time 
and  space,  379 ;  of  limit,  380 ;  poet- 
ical dat.  for,  380, 4.  Ace.  in  exclam., 
381.  Ace.  for  gen.,  407.  Ace.  w. 
r'efert  and  interest,  408,  I.,  3 ;  w. 
preps.,  432;  433;  435;  w.  adverbs, 
437 ;  as  object,  w.  infin.,  534.  Ace. 
as  subj.  of  mfin.,  536.  Ace.  of  ger., 
542,  III. 

Accusative,  Greek,  in  -at.  581,  V.,  2. 
Ace.  plur.  in  -us,  681,  IX.,  2. 

Accusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
_  II.;  410,  II. 

Acer,  decl..  153. 

•aceus,  adjs.  in,  329;  din, 587,  III.,1. 

Acits^  decl.,  122,  2. 

Acquitting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409,  II. 
acrum,  a  in,  587, 1.,  1. 

Action,  repeated,  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  2,  2) ;  518. 1. 

Active  voice,  195.  Active  and  passive 
constr.,  464. 

-acundus,  a  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

Acus^  decl.,  117, 1 ;  gend.,  118. 

Ad  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compda. 
w.  two  aces.,  876;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Ad  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433,  I.  ;  after 
adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 ;  w.  rifert  and  in- 
terest, 408,  1.,  3.  Ad  designating 
abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ad  w.  ger.,  p. 
315,  foot-note  5;  denoting  purpose, 
542,  III.,  N.  2. 

Adefi,  551,  N.  2:  554, 1.,  4. 
ades,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Adfatim  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3; 
ouant.  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Adticin  w.  abl.,  420,  2. 

Adfinis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3 ; 
p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Aavplscnr  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  8, 

Adjaced  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

AWECTIVE,  146 ;  decl  of,  147  ff. ;  Ir- 


regular, 151 ;  159.  Compar.,  160 
ff.  Numerals,  172  ff. ;  dec!,  of,  175 
ff.  Demon.,  186.  4.  Eel.,  187,  4. 
Inter.,  188,  4.  Derivation,  328  ff. 
Composition,  342.  W.  dat.,  391 : 
400,  1 ;  w.  gen. .  397,  3 ;  399 :  of 
gerund,  p.  315,  foot-note  2.  Adj. 
for  gen.,  395,  N.  2.  Adj.  w.  abl., 
400," 3;  414,  III.:  416;  420;  421. 
Agreement,  438  ff.  Use,  440.  W. 
forceof  substantives,  441 ;  of  clauses, 
442  ;  of  adverbs,  443.  Compar., 
use,  444.  Adj.  separated  from 
noun.  565,  3  and  4.  Position  of 
modifiers  of  adj.,  566;  of  adj.  w. 
gen.,  565,  2. 

Admisceo  w.  dat.,  885,  8;  p.  201, 
foot-note  1. 

Admodum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Ad'.noneo,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Admonishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
409, 1. ;  4i'0, 1. 

Adolescens,  compar.,  168,  4. 

Adonic  verse,  628,  I. 

Adopted  son,  how  named,  649,  3. 

Ador,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Adiilor  w.  ace.  or  dut.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Adulter.,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Adverbial  ace.,  378.  Adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

ADVEKBS,  303  ff.  Numeral  adverbs, 
181.  Compar.,  806.  Adverbs  w. 
nouns,  359,  N.  4;  443,  N.  4;  w. 
dat.,  392;  w.  gen..  397, 4.  Adverbs 
as  preps.,  437.  Adverbs  for  adjs., 
443,  N.  3.  Dse  of  adverbs,  551  if. 
Position  of  modifiers  of  adverb,  568. 
Adverb  between  prep,  und  case,  56'J, 
II.,  8.  -E.  in  adverbs,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Adverb  redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Adversative  conjuncs.,  310,  8  ;  554, 
III.  Advers.  asyndeton,  p.  370, 
foot-note  1. 

Adversum,  adverints,  w.  aec.,  433. 

Ae,  sound,  6;  12;  changed  to  i,  844 
4.  N.  2 

Aedes,  sing,  and  plur.,  182. 

Aeger,  decl.,  150. 

Aegreferd,  coustr.,  p.  810,  foot-note  2. 

Aeneas,  decl.,  50. 

Aequ&li*  w  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Aequi  facere,  401,  N.  4. 

Atr,  quant,  of  increm,,  585,  III.,  4. 

Aetdt,  decl.,  58. 

Aether,  quant,  of  increm.,  685,  III. ,4. 

-aeus,  adjs.  in.,  331. 

Age,  expression  of,  p.  222,  foot-  note  4 
Ages  of  Lat.  literature,  640. 


392 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Age,  in  ten.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 
Agent,  abl.  of,  with  a  or  ab,  388,  2 ; 

415,  I.     Dat.  of,  388. 
Ager,  decl.,  51. 
-aginta,   quant,   of  antepen.,  587, 

_  m.,  3. 

Agnomen,  649,  2  and  3. 

Agnomination,  637,  XL,  7. 

Ago  ut,  498,  II.,  N.  2 ;  idagb  w.  subj., 

p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
ago,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  327,  4,  N. ; 
a  in,  587,  L,  2. 

Agreeable,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 
391,  I. 

AGREEMENT,  of  Nouns,  362  ff.    Fred, 
noun,  362;  in  gend.,  362,  1.     Ap- 
positive,  363;  in  gend.,  363, 1.    Of 
adject.,  438  ff. ;  w.  clause,  438,  3 ;  \ 
synesis,  438,  6;  w.  one  noun  for  | 
another,  438,  7 ;  w.  two  or  more  i 
nouns,  439;  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  [ 
N.  1.    Of  pronouns,  445 ;  w.  two 
or  more  antecedents,  445,  3  ;  attrac-  i 
tion,  445,   4 ;  synesis,  '445,   5 ;   w.  j 
clause,  445,  7.     Of  verbs,  460  ff. ;  | 
synesis,  461  ;  w.  appos.  or  pred. 
noun,  462 ;  w.  compd.  subject,  463. 

Ah,  aha,  312. 

-31  for  -ae,  49,  2 ,  &  in,  577,  L,  1,  (1 ). 

Aid  for  agio.  p.  19,  foot-note  8 ;  posi- 
tion, 569,  V. 

Sis  in  prop,  names,  d  in,  577,  5,  N. ; 
587,  L,  3. 

-al  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).  Nouns 
in  -al.  63;  65,  2;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  L.  1.  -Al  in  Plautus  for  -al. 
580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Alacer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1 ;  superlat. 
wanting,  168,  3. 

Albut,  without  compar.,  169,  4. 

Alcaic  verse,  604,  N.  1:  628,  VIII. 
and  IX. ;  619.  1.  Alcaic  stanza, 
631, 1. 

41cmanian  stanza,  631,  XIX. ;  631, 
IX. 

Alee,  alex,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III., 
3. 

-alia,  names  of  festivals  in,  136,  3. 

Alicum,  alicunde,  305. 

Alienus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Aliqud,  ahquam  aliqitandO,  305. 

Aliquantus,  191. 

Aliqm,  use,  455, 1. 

Aliquis,  190,  2 ;  191 ;  use  of,  455. 

Aliqud,  305,  II. 

Aliouct,  191. 

Aliquotims.  aliq-udvorsum,  305. 

-alls,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  168,  2; 
169,3.  Jin-d/w,  587,  I.,4- 


;  Aliud — nihil   aliud   nisi,   nihil   aliud 

quam,  555,  III.,  1. 
Alius,  decl.,  151 ;  w.  abl.,  417,  1,  N. 

4.   Use  of  alius,  459.  Alius — alivm 

w.  pi.  verb,  461,  3. 
Allegory,  637,  II.,  1. 
I  Alliteration,  637,  XI.,  1. 
i  Allobrox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,11., 3. 
Alphabet,  2  ff.    Letters  of.  indecl., 

128,  1. 
Alter,  dec}.,  151.     Alter  for  secundus, 

p.  66,  foot-note  4.  Use  of  a Uer,  459. 

Alter — alterum,  w.  pi.  verb,  461.  3. 
Alteruter,  decl.,  151,  N.  2. 
Alvus,  gend.,  53,  1. 
-am  in  adverbs,  304,  L,  3,  2). 
Amdns,  decl.,  157. 
Ambi,   amb,  Insep.    prep.,  808;    in 

compds.,  344,  6. 
Ambo,  dec!.,  175,  N.  2. 
Amicus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Jin  amlcits,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Amnis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
Amphiaraides.  I  in,  p. 345, foot-note  3. 
Amphora,  648,  III. 
Amplius  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 
Amyclides.  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
An,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8  ;  353.    An  = 

'whether  not,' 529,    II.,  3,  N.  2; 

=  aut,  529,  II..  8,  N.  3.    A  in  an, 
579,  3. 

-an,  suffix,  320,  I. 
-ana,  a  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
Anacoluthon,  636,  IV.,  6. 
Anacrusis,  618,  N.  3. 
Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 
Anapaest,  597,  N.  1  ;  cyclic,  598,1,4). 
Anaphora,  636,  III.,  3. 
Anas,  as  in,  581,  V.,  1 ;  quant,  of  iti- 

crem.,  585,  I.,  4,  (2). 
Anastrophe,  636,  V.,  1. 
Ancient  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  5  ; 

of  verbs,  240. 
Annie,  decl.,  136,  3. 
AndrogeOs,  decl.,  54. 
-ancus.  a  in,  587,  III.,  1. 
Anguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
AnhelUus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Animal,  decl.,  63. 

Animl,  constr.,  399,  III.,  1;  410,  V.,2. 
Anw,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  '2. 
Annon,  310,  2,  N.;  353,  2,  N.  3. 
Answers,  352. 
-ant,  suffix,  320, 1. 
Antu  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.    Ante  w.  ace.,  433 ; 
433,   I.  ;    denoting   interval,  430. 
Ante  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 
Anted,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 
Antecedent,  445,  N.;  omitted,  445,  6. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


393 


Clause  as  anteccd.,  445,  7.    Ante- 

oed.  attracted.  445,  9. 
Antecedd  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ante-classical  period,  640,  I. 
Anteed  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.I; 

w.  ace.  or  dat..  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Antehdc,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 
Antequam,  311, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 

520. 
Anticipation,  prolepsis,  440,  2;  636, 

IV.,  3. 

Antlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Antimeria,  636,  IV..  1. 
-anus,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  331 ;  a  in,  587, 

I.,  5. 

Anxiety,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  III. 
•aon  in  prop,  names,  a  in,  577,  5,  N. 
Apage,  interj.,  312,  4. 
'Aphaeresis,  635, 1. 
Apis,  genit.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  8. 
Apocopet  635,  3. 
Apophasis,  637,  XI.,  2. 
Aposiopesia,  636, 1.,  8;  637,  XL,  8. 
Apostrophe,  637,  X. 
Apparent  agent,  388. 
Appendix  with  short  increm.,  p.  343, 

foot-note  2. 
Appendix,  634  ff. 
Apposition,  partitive,  864.     Clauses 

in  apposition,  501,  III. 
Appositional  genitive,  396,  VI. 
Appositive,  359,  N.  2 ;  agreement  of, 

363 :  in  gend.,  363,  1 ;  force  of,  363, 

3.    Infin.  as  appos.,  539,  II. 
Apricus,  I  in,  p,  345,  foot-note  4. 
Aptut   w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Aptut  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  2. 
Apud  w.  ace.,  433 •.  433, 1. ;  designat- 
ing abode,  446,  IS.  4. 
ar  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).     Nouns 

in  ar.  63 ;  65,  2  ;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  I.,  1.     Gend.  of  nouns  in  ar, 

ar,  111;  112.     -Ar  in  Plautus  for 

-ar,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Arar,  Araris,  a  eel.,  62,  III.,  1. 
Arbor,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Arced  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Archilochian  verse,  604.  N.  1 ;  628, 

X.;   016,  N.:  617,   N.J  619,   N. ; 

stanza,    631,   XI.    and    XII.  ;    631, 

XIV.  and  XV. 
Arcus,  decl.,  117, 1. 
Arenae,  locat..  426,  2,  N. 
Aries,  es  in,  681,  VI.,  1. 
aris,  adjs.  in,  330;  conipar.,  169,  8. 

Am  -d'rif,  587,  I.,  6. 
Aristophanic  verse,  628,  II. 
arium,  nouns  in,  323;  d  in,  687, 

111.,  1. 


-arius,  nouns  in,  324 ;  adjs.  in,  830 : 
d  in,  587,  III.,  1. 

AKBANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND 
CLAUSES,  559  ff. ;  words,  560  ff. ; 
gen.  rules,  560  ff. ;  effect  of  empha- 
sis and  euphony,  561 ;  chiasmus, 
562 ;  kindred  words,  563  ;  words  w. 
com.  relationj  564 ;  special  rules, 
565  ff. ;  modifiers  of  nouns,  565 ; 
adjs.,  566 ;  verbs,  567 ;  adverbs,  568 ; 
special  words,  569;  demon.,  569. 
I.:  preps.,  569.  II.;  conjuncs.  ana 
relat.,  569,  III.  ;  ndn,  569,  IV. ; 
inquam,  did,  569,  V. ;  voc..  569, 
VI.;  clauses,  570  ff.;  as  subj.  or 
pred.,  571;  subord.  elements,  672; 
periods,  573. 

Arsis,  600. 

Article,  48,  6. 

Artus,  dec!.,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50.  foot- 
note  1. 

-arus,  d  in,  587, 1.,  6. 

Arxt  decl.,  64. 

Aryan  languages,  638. 

-ftS  in  genit.,  Decl.  1.,  49, 1  Nouns 
in  -as,  Decl.  I.,  50;  Decl.  III.,  64, 
2,  3);  decl.,  79.  Gender  of  nouns 
in  -as,  -as,  105,  106.  -As  in  ad- 
verbs, 304.  I.,  8,  2).  -As,  suffix, 
320,1.  -As,  adjs.  in,  331.  Quant, 
of  -as,  -as,  580,  III. ;  581,  V.  •  d  in 
voc.  of  nouns  in,  581t  III. ,2.  Quant. 
of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -as,  585, 1.,  3. 

A»,  646 ;  648,  I. 

Asclepiadean  verse,  628,  IV.  and  V. ; 
631,  IV.-VI1I. 

Asking,  construction  w.  verbs  of,  874. 

Asper,  decl.,  150,  N. 

AspergO,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Aspirate,  3,  11.,  3. 
,  -assim  in  pen.  aubj.,  240,  4. 
!  Assimilation  of  vowels,  25;  of  con 
sonants,  33 ;  84. 

Assimilis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  8. 

Astis,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  8. 
asso  in  fut.  perf.,  240,  4. 
i  Asyndeton,  636, 1..  1. 

,4*.  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2. 

-at,  neut.  sterna  in,  58,  2.  -At  in 
Plautus  for  -at,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Atat,  interj..  312, 1. 

-aticus,  d  in,  587,  111.,  2. 
atilis,  quant,  of  pen.,  687,  II.,  5; 
antepen.,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atim,  d  in,  587,  I.,  7. 

At(jue,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  a* 
451,  5;  than,  459,  2;  554,  L,  2,  N. 
Que — ntque,  554,  I.,  5. 

Atqul,  310,3;  554,  III.,  2. 
atrura,  d  in,  587,  1.,  !• 


894 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Attamen,  554,  III.,  3. 

Attraction,  636,  IV.,  5  ;  of  pron.,  445, 

4  and  8 ;  ofanteced.,  445,  9. 
Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 
-at us,  nouns  in,  324 ;  d  in,  587",  I.,  7. 
Au,  interi.,  312,  3. 
Au,  souna.6 ;  12 ;  changed  in  compds., 

344,  4,  N.  3. 
Auddx,  decl.,  156. 
Audiens  w.  two  data.,  390,  N.  3. 
Audio  w.  pred.  noun,  362,  2,  N.  1 ; 

w.  infin.,  535, 1.,  1. 
Aureus,  646. 

Ausim  for  auserim,  240,  4. 
Aut,  310,  2:  554,  II.,  2.     Aut—aut, 

554,  II.,  N.     Position  of  aut   in 

poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 
Autem:  310,  3;   554,  III.,  2  and  4; 

position,  569,  III. 
Authors,  Latin,  640. 
Autonomasia,  637,  III.,  1. 
AKxilium,  auxilia,  132. 
Aversion,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  1. 
Avidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

p.  815,  foot-note  2 ;  other  constrs., 

400. 

Avis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
-avus,  d  in,  587.  I.,  6. 
-ax,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  91 ;  verbals  hi, 

333;  w.  ger.,  3992  11.     Quant,  of 

increm.  or  words  in  -ax*  585,  1.,  4, 

(3). 
Axo  for  egerd,  240, 4. 

B 

B,  sound,  7,  N. :  changed  to  »,  33, 1 ; 

to  m,  33,  3,  N. ;  34,  3.    Quant,  of 

monosyl.  in,  579,  2. 
Baccar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4, 

Bacchius,  597,  N.  1. 

Becoming,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  890, 

N.  1, 1). 
Beginning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1., 

1.    Beginning  of  sentence  emphatic, 

561, 1. 
Being,  two  date.  w.  verbs  of,  890,  N. 

1,  1).      Being  able,   wont,   accus- 
tomed, constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  2. 
Betides,  i  in,  p.  345.  foot-note  3. 
Believing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  II. 

Infin.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I.,  1,  (2). 
Helium,  decl.,  51,  8.     Belli,  locat.,  51, 

8 ;  426,  2. 
Belonging  to,  gen.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

391,  4. 
Bene,  compar.,  306,  2;   compds.   w. 

dat.,  384,  4,  N.  1.     E  final  in  bene, 

581,  IV.,  4. 


Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  I. 

-ber,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ;  namen  ol 
months  in,  65,  1,  1). 

Bibl,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Bili»,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

-bills,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ;  verbals  in, 
333 ;  w.  dat.,  391, 1.  •  compar.,  168, 1. 
Quant,  of  pen.  of  -bills,  587,  II.,  5. 

Bis,  i  in,  579,  3. 

Boiil  facere,c6nsulere,  401,  N.  4. 

Bonus,  decl.,  148,  compar.,  165. 

Bos.  decl.,  66;  quant,  of  increm.,  581, 
It,  3. 

Brachylogy,  636,  II. 

Brazen  age,  640,  III.,  1. 

-brum,  nouns  in,  327. 

-bs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  86. 

Bubae,  interj.,  312,  1. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  611,  2;  bucol.  caesu- 
ra, p.  356,  foot-note  5. 

-bulum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  327. 

-bundus.  verbals  in,  333. 

Buris,  decl.,  62, 11. 

Buying,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 


C  In  place  of  (?,  2, 1  and  3.  Sound  ol 
c,  7 ;  13.  C  changed  to  ^,  33,  2 ; 
dropped,  36,  3.  Nouns  in  c,  74. 
Gend.  ,111.  Quant,  of fi  nal  sy  llables 
in  c,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  1. 

-C&,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Caecus,  superl.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Caelum,  plur.,  143,  1. 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  602. 

Calcar,  decl.,  63. 

Calendar,  Roman,  641  ff. 

Calends,  642,  I.,  1. 

Calix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  "73. 

Campester.decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Cants,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

Capiti*  w.  verbs,  410,  111.,  N.  2. 

Cappadox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II., 
3. 

Capso  for  c'tperd,  240,  4. 

Caput,  decl.,  58. 

Carbasus,  gend.,  53,  1 ;  plur.,  142. 

Career,  car  ceres,  132. 

Cardinals  172 ;  174 ;  decl.,  175  S. 

Carmen,  decl.,  60. 

Card,  decl..  64,  N.  1. 

Cdrus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

CASES,  ETYMOLOGY  OF,  45  ff.  Cases 
alike,  46,  2.  Case  suffixes,  46,  1 ; 
in  Peel.  III.,  57;  67.  Case  eud- 


INDEX    OF  SUBJECTS. 


395 


ings,  47,  N.  3 ;  in  Decl.  I.,  48 ;  Decl. 

II.,  51,  2,  3);  Decl.  in.,  67;  for  i- 

stems,  62.  I.,  2;  Decl.  IV.,  116; 

Decl.  V.,  120;  pronouns,  184,  1. 

Irregular  case  endings,  Decl.  I. ,  49; 

Decl.  II.,  52;  Decl.  III.,  67,  N.  ; 

Decl.  IV.,  117;  Decl.  V.,  121. 
OASES,  SYNTAX  OP,  362  ff.    General 

view,  365.    Nominat.,  368.    Vocat., 

369.    Accusat.,370ff.    Dat.,  382 ff. 

Gen.,  393  ff.    Abl.,  411  ff.    Cases 

w.  preps.,  432  ff. 
Castrum,  castra,  132. 
Catalectic,  603,  notes  3  and  5. 
Causa,  p.  221,  foofc-note  2. 
Causal  adverbs,  305,  N.  2,  4) ;  con- 
junctions, 310,  5^  311,  7;  554,  V. ; 

555,  VII.   Causal  clauses,  516 ;  517 ; 

w.  quod,  etc.,  516;  w.  cum  and  qui, 

S17 
Cause,  gen.  of,  399,  III.,  2 ;  abl.,  413 ; 

416.    Cause  expressed  by  particip. , 

549,  1. 
Caveo,  constr.,  385, 1.    CavS  w.  subj. 

forimperat.,  489,  2) ;  w.  ne  omitted, 

499,  2.     E  in  cavt,  581,  IV.,  3. 
-oe,  appended,  186,  1  and  2. 
C'ecldi,  quant,  of  pen.,  591,  1. 
Cede,  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Celeber,  celer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 
Cm,  constr.,  374,  2. 
Celtiber,  decl.,  51,  4.  3) ;   quant,  of 

increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
-Gen,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 
Censeo,  constr,,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
-oeps,  genit.  plur.  of  adjs.  in,  158,  2, 

3) ;  compds.  in,  342,  1. 
-cer,  suffix,  p.  155,  footnote  1. 
Ceres,  ea  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 
Certo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Certus,  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
CSter,  ceterus, '  defective,    159,   II. ; 

meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Cfterum,  310,  3 ;  554,  III.,  2. 
Ch,  sound,  7,  N. ;  13,  I.,  2. 
Changes  in  consonants,  30  ff. 
Characteristic,    stem-characteristic, 

nouns,  46,  3  ;  verbs.  201.     Gen.  of 

characteristic,  396,  V. ;  abl.,  419, 

II. ;  419,  2. 

Chiasmus,  562;  636,  V.,  4. 
Chief  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Choliambus,  622,  4.  . 

Choosing,    verbs   of,   w.  two  aces., 

373 ;  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Choree,  p.  350.  foot-note  2. 
Choriambus,  597,  N.  1. 
-citla,  compds.  in,  341.  1. 
Cilix,  w.  short  inerem.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 


Cingo,  constr.,  377. 

-oino,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-oinus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-cifi,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Circa,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  433,  I. ;  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 

Circiter  w.  ace..  433 ;  433,  I. 

Circum,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  in 
compds.,  344,  5;  compds.  w.  ace. 
372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w.  dat., 
386,  2.  Circum  w.  ace.,  433; 
433,1. 

Circumdo,  eircumfundo,  constr.,  p. 
198,  foot-note  1. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  genus,  modus, 
ratti,  636,  III.,  10. 

Cis  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433,  I. ;  i  in,  579,  3. 

Citerior,  compar.,  166. 

Cities,  plur.  in  names  of,  131,  N. 

Cito,  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Citra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433;  433,1. 

Cit-iim,  i,  in,  590,  1. 

Civis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Clam  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clans,  Roman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Classical  period,  640,  II. 

Classification  of  letters,  3;  verbs, 
257  ff. 

Cldssis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Claudus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

CLAUSES,  348,  N.  1 :  as  nouns,  gend., 
42,  N.  Prin.  and  sub.  clauses,  348, 
N.  2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  as 
abl.,  abs.,  431,  N.  1;  as  anteced., 
445,  7.  Object  clauses  of  purp., 
498.  Subst.  clauses  of  purp.,  499, 
3 ;  of  result,  501.  Restrictive  clauses 
w.  quod,  503,  I.,  N.  1.  Conditional 
clauses,513;  concess.,514  ff. ;  temp., 
518  ff. ;  principal,  in  indir.  disc., 
523;  subord.,  524.  Indirect  clauses, 
528  ff.  Substantive  clauses,  532  ff. ; 
540.  Relat.  clauses  supplied  by 
particip.,  549,  4.  Prin.  clauses  sup- 
plied by  particip.,  549,  5.  Arrang. 
of  clauses,  570  ff. 

Clavis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Cliens,  decl.,  64. 

Climax,  637,  VI. 

Close  vowels,  3,  I.,  3. 

Clothing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-co,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Cognate  ace.,  371,  I.  and  II. 

CognOmen,  649. 

Cdgo,  constr.,  380,  N.  ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 2. 

Coins,  Roman.  646. 


396 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


-cola,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 

Collecting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  380.  N. 

Collective  nouns,  89,  2,  1) ;  w.  plur. 
verb,  461, 1. 

ColUs,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

CollocO,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Colus}  gend.,  53, 1 ;  118  ;  decl.,  119,  2. 

Com  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 

Coming  together,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
380,  N. 

Comitium,  comitia,  132. 

Command,  dat.  w.  verbs  signifying  to, 
385, 1. ;  infin.  after,  535,  II.  Subj. 
of  command,  483  ff. 

Commiseresctt.  commiseretur.  constr., 
410,  IV.,  N.  1. 

Common  nouns,  39, 2.  Common  quan- 
tity, 16,  III. ;  575. 

Commums  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Commuto,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

COMPARATIVE  conjuncs.,  311,  2;  555, 
II.  Comparat.  degree,  160:  decl., 
154 ;  wanting,  167 ;  formed  by  ma- 
gis,  170.  Comparat.  w.  gen.,  397, 
3;  w.  abl.,  417;  w.  guam,  417,  1. 
Use;  444.  Comparat.  w.  guam  and 
subj.,  503,  II.,  3.  O  in  mcrem.  of 
comparat.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Comparative  view  of  conjugations, 
213  ff. 

COMPARISON  of  adjs.,  160  S. ;  modes 
of,  161;  terminational,  162;  irreg.,  ! 
163;  defect.,  166;  adverbial,  170;  ! 
of  adverbs,  306.     Use  of  compar., 
444.    Dat.  w.  verbs  of  comparison,  ; 
385,  4,  3). 

Compes,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

CompleQ,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1;  p.  225,  ' 
foot-note  3. 

Complex  sentences,  348 ;  elements, 
357,  2 ;  subject,  359 ;  predicate,  361. 

Compliir'es,  decl.,  154,  N.  1. 

Compos  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3;  , 
-os  in,  581,  VIL,  1 ;  quant,  of  in- 
crem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Composition  of  words,  340  ff. 

COMPOUND  WORDS,  313,  N.  2 ;  pro-  j 
nunciation,  8,  3 ;  p.  8,  foot-note  1 ;  i 
18,  2.     Compel,  nouns,  decl.,  125  ff.  i 
Compd.    interrog.,  188,   3 ;   nouns, 
341;  343;  adjs.,  342;  343;  verbs, 
221 ;  344.     Compd.  sentences,  349. 
Compds.  of  preps,  w.  ace. ,  372 ;  w. 
two  aces. ,  376 ;  w.  dat. ,  386.  Quant, 
in  compds.,  594.  Compd.  verse,  601, 
N.  2. 

Computation  of  money,  647. 

Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  874. 

Concession  expressed  by  particip., 
549,2. 


CONCESSIVE  conjunctions,  311. 4 ;  555 
IV. ;  concess.  subj.  of  desire,  484, 
III.  Concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ;  posi- 
tion of,  572,  II.,  N. 

Condemning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410, 

Condicd  w.  gen.,  409,  N.  3. 

Condition  expressed  by  imperat.,  487, 
3  ;  by  particip.,  549,  2. 

CONDITIONAL  conjuncs.,  311,  3;  555, 
III.  Cond.  sentences,  506  ff. ;  first 
form,  508 ;  sec.  form,  509 ;  third 
form,  510 :  combined  forms,  511 ; 

512.  Condit.  clauses  w.  dum^  etc., 

513.  Condit.  sentences    in  indir. 
disc.,    527.      Position    of    condit. 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

Confido  w.  abl.,  425, 1, 1),  N. 
Gomtor,  constr. ,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
CONJUGATION,  201  ff. ;  of  sum,   204. 

First  con].,  205  ff. ;  223  ff. ;  257  ff.  ; 

second,  207  ff. ;  225  ff. ;  261  ff. ; 

«,  in  imperat.,  581.  IV.,  3  ;  third,  209 

ff. ;  227  ff. ;  269  if. ;  fourth,  211  ff. ; 

229  ff. :  284  ff. ;  is  in  pres.  indie., 

581,  VIII.,  3 :  verbs  in  id  of  Conj. 

III.,    217.      Periphrastic,     233    ff. 

Peculiarities,  235  ff.    Comparative 

view,  213.     Irreg.  verbs,  289  ff. ; 

defect.,  297  ff. ;  impers.,  298  ff.    In- 

crem.  of  conj.,  583 ;  584 ;  quant.,  586. 
Conjunctions,  309;  coord.,  554;  sub- 

ord.,  555.     Conj.  omitted,  554, 1.,  6. 

Place  of  conj.  in  sentence,  569,  III. 
Conor ,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 
0^nsc^w  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2;  other  constrs., 

400.     Conjoins  mihl  sum  w.  infin., 

535,  I.,  3. 

Consecutive  conjs.,  311,  6 ;  555,  VI. 
Consequor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Convimilis'w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Consonant  nouns,  55  ff.    Consonant 

stems,  57  ff.    Consonant  verbs,  209. 
Consonants,  3,  II. ;  double,  3,  N.  2 ; 

sounds  of,  7 ;  13 ;  15,  2 :  phonetic 

changes  in,  30  ff. ;  interchanged  w. 

vowels,  28  ;  29 ;  assimilated,  33  ;  34 ; 

dissimilated,  35 ;  omitted,  36. 
Consors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Constituo,  constr.,  498, 1.,  N. ;  p.  274, 

foot-note  1. 

"Constd  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 
Consul,  decl.,  60. 
Cdnsulo,  constr.,  374,  2;  885,  1. 
Consultus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Contendo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1; 

w.  infin.,  498,  II.,  N.  1  •,  w.  subj., 

p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Contention,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  386, 4,  3) 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


397 


Content™  w.  abl.,  420;  1,4);  421,  III. 
Continental  pronunciation  of  Latin, 

15. 

Contingit,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Continuing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

I.,  1. 
Contra,  p.  149,  foot-note  '?    w.  ace. 

433 ;  433,  A. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  23 ;  in  conju- 
gation, 235.  Quant,  of  syllables  in 

contract.,  576,  I. 

Contrariu*  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Contro-  in  compels.,  594,  8. 
Gonvenio,  constr.,  380,  N. 
Convicting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 

II. ;  410,  II. 

CorwooO,  constr.,  380,  N. 
Coordinate  conjs.,  309,  1  j  554. 
Copia,  copiae,  132.     C'opw  est  w.  in- 

fin.,  533,  3,  N.  3. 
Copulative  conjs.,  310,  1 ;  554,  1. 
CopuU  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Cor,  defective,  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  3. 
Coram,  p.  149,  foot-note  2 :  w.  abl., 

434. 

Corna,  decl.,  116. 
Coronldes,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Corpus,  decl.,  61. 
Correlative  pronouns,  191 ;  adverbs, 

305.    Correlat.   compar.  conjuncs., 

555,  II.,   1.     Position  of  correlat. 

clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 
Cos,  defective,  183,  5. 
cosus.  adjs.  in,  328. 
Uotidfcj  local.,  120,  N. 
Countnes,  names  of,  gend.,  42,  Ii.  2  ; 

constr.,  380,  3. 

Credor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Orlmine,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 
crum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 

nouns  in,  327. 
Cubitus,  648,  IV.,  N. 
Ouicuimodl,  187,  4. 
Cujat,  c&jus,  185,  N.  8. 
Cujusmodi,  cujmcumquemodi,  187,  4, 

cula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 
-culo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

culum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  321 ;  327  ;  cu  int  587,  II.,  3. 

culus,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.  in,  382 ; 
u  in  pen.,  587,  II.,  3. 

Cum,  _prep.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  ap- 
pended, 184,  6;  187,  2;  com  in 
compds.,  344,  5.  Cum  w.  abl., 
434 ;  484,  I. ;  of  accompaniment, 
419 ;  of  manner,  419,  III. ;  after 
idem,  451,  5;  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  4. 
Oum  w.  ger.,  p.  216,  foot-note  1. 

Own,  quum,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  305, 


IV.;  311,  1  and  4;  p.  151,  foot- 
notes  1  and  4;  311,  7;  w.  perf.  in- 
die., 471,  5 ;  w.  plup.  indie.,  472,  2; 
introducing  a  condition,  507,  3;  a 
concession,  515,  III. ;  515,  N.  4 ;  a 
causal  clause,  517;  a  temp,  clause, 
521.  Oum  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,  2). 
Oum—twn,  554, 1.,  5. 

cumque,  p.  75,  foot-note  3;  305, 
N.  1. 

Cumulo,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Cuncti  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N.  4. 

-cundus,  verbals  in,  333. 

Cupidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3  , 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Cupiens  w.  dat.  of  possessor,  387, 
N.3. 

Cupid,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Cura  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Curd,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

-cus,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  333,  5. 

Cyclic  dactyl,  598,  1,  3);  anapaest, 
598,  1,  4). 

Cyclops,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  2. 

D 

D  for  t,  32,  N.  1.  D  changed  to  L  32 ; 
assimilated  to  u  or  «,  34,  1 ;  to  /,  34. 
2 ;  dropped  before  s,  36,  2.  D  final 
dropped,  36,  5,  2).  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  d,  579,  2  ;  580,  II. 
d,  -da,  nouns  in,  322. 

Dactyl,  597,  I. :  cyclic,  598,  1,  3). 
Effect  of  dactyls,  610,  2. 

Dactylic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  614  ff. ; 
hexameter,  609  ff. 

Ddmma,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Danais,  quant,  of  pen.,  p.  845,  foot- 
note 1. 

Danger,  constr.  w.  expressions  of,  498, 

Daps,  d<ipix,  defective,  138,  3. 

Dare  litleras,  385,  1,  N.  Dare  ope- 
ram  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  '2. 
E'm  dedi,  a  in  datum,  500,  1. 

Daring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  J.,  1. 

Dates,  Eng.  and  Lat.,  644. 

DATIVE,  Decl.  I.,  4!»,  4;  Decl.  III., 
58,  2 ;  66,  2 ;  67,  N.  1 ;  68,  5 ;  Decl. 
IV.,  117,  1;  Decl.  V.,  121,1. 

DATIVE,  syntax  of,  382  ff.  Dat.  for 
ace.,  380,  4.  Dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3) ;  w.  verbs,  384  ff.  ;  w. 
compdw.,  386  :  of  possessor,  387  ;  of 
agent,  388.  Ethical  dat.,  389.  Two 
dats.,  390.  Dat.  w.  adjs.,  391 ;  399. 
I.,  3,  N.  1 ;  400,  1 ;  w.  nouns  ana 
adverbs,  392 ;  w.  rffert  and  interest, 
408, 1.,  3.  Dat.  of  penalty,  410,  III., 


398 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


N.  1.  Dat.  of  ger.,  542,  II. ;  ge- 
rundive, 544,  2.  .. 

Dative  sing,  in  £,  581,  I.,  2.  E  in 
dat.,  Dec!  III.,  581,  IV.,  2. 

'  Daughter,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 
I.,  N.  2.  Names  of  daughters,  649, 4. 

Day,  Rom.  division  of,  645. 

D'e  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  De  w.  abl.,  434 :  434, 
I. ;  for  genit.,  397,  N.  3.  D'e  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Dea,  decl.,  49,  4. 

Debed  w.  pres.  infin.,  537, 1. 

Decay,  pnonetic,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

Decerno,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foptr-note  1. 

Decipio,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

Declarative  sentence,  350;  in  indir. 
disc.,  523, 1. 

Declaring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535, 1. 

DECLENSION,  46;  first,  48;  sec.,  51; 
third,  55  ;  fourth,  116  ;  sec.  and 
fourth,  119;  fifth,  120;  compds., 
125.  -0  in  Decl.  HI.,  581,  II.,  2. 
-E  in  Decl.  I.  and  V.,  581,  IV.,  1. 
Increm.  of  decl.,  582;  584;  quant., 
585. 

Dedoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Defective  nouns,  122 ;  127,  II. ;  129  ff. ; 
adjs.,  159,  II.  Def.  compar.,  166  ff. 
Def.  verbs,  297. 

Degree,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 

Degrees  of  comparison,  160. 

Deinde,  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 

Delecto,  constr.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Deliberative  subj..  484,  V.  Delib. 
questions,  523,  II.,  1,  N. 

Delos.  decl.,  54. 

DelpMn,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Demanding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  pronouns,  186 ;  use 
of,  450  ff. ;  449,  1.  Demon,  roots, 
314,  II.  Demon,  adverbs,  450,  N.  4. 
Demon,  w.  infin.,  538,  3.  Position 
of  demon.,  569, 1.  Demon,  redun- 
dant, 636,  HI.,  7. 

Denarius,  646. 

D'enique,  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 

Denominatives,  335. 

Dental  stems,  Decl.  El.,  58. 

Dentals,  3,  II.  •,  3,  N.  1, 1.   2. 

Dependent  clauses,  348,  N.  2.  De- 
pend, questions,  528,  2,  N. 

Deponent  verbs,  195,  2 ;  231 ;  465,  2. 

Depriving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414, 1. 

Derivation,  821  ff. ;  of  nouns,  821  ff. ; 
adjs.,  328  ff. ;  verbs,  335  ff. 

Derivatives,  quant,  in,  598. 

-d.es,  nouns  in,  322. 

Descent,  names  of,  322. 


Descriptive  genit.,  396,  V. ;  abl.,  419, 

II.,  N.    Descrip.  imperf.  in  temp. 

clauses,  518,  N.  1. 
Desideratives,  284,  2 ;  338. 
Desino,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
Desire,  subj.  of,  483  ff. ;  for  imperat., 

487,  4. 
Desiring,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  1 ; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  verbs  of,  410, 

V.,  2.     Subj.  after  verbs  of,  498, 1. ; 

infinit.,  533,1.,  1;  535,  II. 
D'esisto,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
D'ezp'erd  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w. 

dat.  or  ace.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Destitute  of,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  m. 

De&um,  synaeresis  in,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
Desuper  vr.  ace.,  437, 1. 
Deterior,  comparison,  166. 
Deterius,  comparison.  306,  3. 
Determinative  compos.,  343, 1. 
Determining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533. 

I.,  1. 

D'eterred,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 
Deus,  decl.,  51,  6. 
-dex,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 
Dexter,  decl.,    150,    N.    1);    dextrA, 

constr.,  425,  2. 
Di,  dis,  insep.  prep. ,  308  ;  in  compds.. 

344,  6 ;  I  in  di,  594,  2. 
Diaeresis,  602,  2 ;  608,  IV. 
Diana,  l  in,  577, 1.,  3,  (4). 
Diastole,  608,  V. 
Die  for  dice,  238. 
Dicid,  defective,  134. 
Dicolon,  p.  "52,  foot-note  3. 
Dicor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Dicto  audiens,  390,  N.  3. 
-dicus,  compds.  in,  342, 1 ;  compar., 

164. 

Dldd,  decl.,  68. 
Dies,  decl.,  120;  122,  1;  gend.,  123; 

i  in  compds.,  594,  7. 
Difference,  abl.  of,  417.  2 ;  423. 
Differing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2; 

385,  4,  2). 

Di/erp  w.  dat,,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Infficilis,  compar.,  163,  2 ;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Dignor,  constr.,  421,  N.  2. 
Diqmui,  constr.,  421,  III. ;  421,  N.  8. 

Dlgnus  qm  w.  subj.,   503,  II.,  2. 

Dignus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Diiambus,  597,  N.  1. 
Dimeter,  603,  N.  2. 
Diminutive  nouns,  321;  adjs.,  332; 

verbs,  339. 
Diphthongs,  4 ;  sounds  of,  6 ;  12 ;  15, 

1 ;  weakening  of,  23,  N. ;  quant. 

of  syllab.  w.  diphth.,  576,  I. ;  final 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


399 


diphth.   elided    608,  I. ;  shortened 

in  hiatus.  608,  II.,  N.  3. 
Dipody,  597,  N.  2. 
DIBECT  object,  370  ff.    Direct  disc., 

522,  1;  cnanged  to  indir.,  530;  in- 

dir.  to  direct,  531. 

Directing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 
Direction,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 

385,  4,  1) :  386,  3. 
Dirimo,  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Dig,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Dis,  di,  insep.  prep.,  308 ;  in  compels., 

344   6. 

Disertw^  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  310,  2 ;  554, 

II.    Disjunct,  questions,  353. 
Dispar,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 

and  3. 

Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385, 1. 
Dispondee,  597,  N.  1. 
Dissenting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 
Dissentid,    dissideo,  w.    dat.,  p.   200, 

foot-note  2. 

Dissimilation  of  vowels,  26;   conso- 
nant^ 35. 
Disvirmlis,  compar.,  163,  2;  constr., 

p.  205.  foot-notes  1,  2,  and  3. 
Dissyllabic     perfects    and     supines, 

quant,  of  pen.,  590. 
Distance,  abl.  of,  379,  2 ;  423,  N.  2. 
Distich,  606,  N. ;  elegiac,  615. 
Distd  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Distributives,  172,  3;  174;  decl.,  179. 
Ditrochee,  597,  N.  1. 
Diii,  304, 1.,  1 ;  compar.,  306,  4. 
Z>h«,  *  in,  577,  I.,  3,  (2); 
Diuturnus,  superl.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Diversus,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1. 
Dives,  compar.,  165,  N.  2. 
-d6,  nouns  in,  327, 4,  N. ;  decl.,  60,  4. 
Do  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2;.    See 

also  Dare.    Quant,  of  increm.  of  d6, 

586, 1. 

Doced,  constr.,  874,  2. 
Doled  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w.  abl., 

p.  221,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  infin.,  p.  310, 

foot-note  2. 
Damns,    gend.,  118 ;    decl.,   119,  1  ; 

constr.,  380, 2;  1) ;  412,  II.,  1 ;  425,  2. 
Donee,  311,  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Ddrw,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Double  consonants,  3,  N.  2.    Double 

constr.   w.  verbs,  384,  2.    Double 

questions,  353. 
Dropping  of  vowels,  27  ;  consonants, 

36. 

Dry  measure,  Rom.,  648,  II. 
Dt  changed  to  st,  *«,  or  «,  35,  3. 


Dual  number,  p.  68,  foot-note  1. 

Dubito,  constr.,  505, 1. 

Due  for  duce,  238. 

Luco  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2. 

Duim  for  dem,  240,  3. 

Dum,  p.  145,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 1  and  3 ; 
555,  I.,  1 ;  w.  pres.  indie.,  467,  4; 
w.  subj.  in  conditions,  513, 1.  Dv m 
hi  temp,  clauses,  519 ;  in  indir. 
clauses,  529,  II.,  N.  2. 

Dummodo,  311,  3 ;  w.  subj.  in  con- 
ditions, 513, 1. 

Duo,  decl.,  175  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Duration  of  time,  379. 

-dus,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Dv  changed  to  b,  v,  or  d,  32,  N.  2. 

E 

E,  6,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  E  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  8).  Nouns  in  e,  Dec\. 
I.,  50  ;  in  e,  Decl.  III.;  63  :  65. 2 ;  70. 
E,  gend.  of  nouns  in,  Decl.  III., 
111.  -E  in  abl.,  62.  -#inplur.  of 
Greek  neuters,  68,  6.  E-nounn. 
120.  <£'-verbs,  207.  ^-sterns,  120, 

1.  -E,  -e,  in  adverbs,  304,  I.,  3: 
304,  II.,   2:  804,  III.,  1.    -E,  -e. 
suffix,  320.11.    ^changed  to  i,  344. 
4,  N.I.    Eoremti,  120,  2;  577, 1.. 

2,  (1);  585,  III.,  1.    E  or  e,  final. 
580,  I.;  580,  III..  N.  2;  581,  IV.; 
in  increm.  of  decl.,  585 ;  585,  III.  •• 
conj.,  586 ;  586,  II.    E  elided  be 
fore  consonant,  608, 1.,  N.  2. 

E  or  ex,  see  ex. 

Ed,  304,  II.,  3 ;  305,  V. 

-Sa,  in  prop,  names,  e  in,  577, 1.,  5,  N. 

Eabm  for  els  =  Us,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

Eddem.  304,  II..  3  ;  305,  V. 

Easy,  dat.  w.  acljs.  signifying,  391,  I. 

Bcastdr,  interj.,  p.  152.  foot-note  4. 

Ecce,  312,  1 ;  with  demonstratives, 
186,  8;  with  dat.  in  exclamations, 
381.  N.  3,  3). 

Ecquis,  188,  3.  Ecquid,  p.  180,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ecthlipsis,  608, 1.,  N.  4. 

Edim  for  edam,  240,  8. 

-€d6,  nouns  in,  325 ;  e  in,  587,  1.,  2. 

Sdoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Ee  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.I. 

Effect,  ace.  of,  371, 1.,  2,  2). 

EMcid,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2; 
501,  II.,  1. 

Effigies,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Effort,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Eginus,  compared,  164,  1 ;  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3 ;  p.  219,  foot- 
note 4. 


400 


INDEX  OF  8UBJEVT8. 


Ejed,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1. 
Ego,  decl.,  184.    /in  miM,  581,  I.,  2. 
0  in  ego,  581,  II.,  1. 

fJiem,  inter).,  312, 1. 
heu,  interj'.,  312,  3;  w.  ace.,  381,  N. 

2;  gin,  577, 1.,  2,  (3). 
Eho,  eJiodum,  312,  5 ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Ei,  interj.,  312,  3 ;  w.  dat,  381,  N.  3, 

3). 
Ei,  pronunciation  as  diphthong.  6,  1 ; 

12,  1 ;  e  or  e  in  ll,  120,  2;  577,  L, 

2,  (1);  585,  III..1.     M  in  synae- 

resis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
-€is,  e  in,  587,  L,  3. 

fus,  gin,  577, 1.,  2,  (2). 
s,  312.  2  and  6 ;  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 
ismodl,  186,  4,  N. 
-ela,  e  in,  587,  L,  4. 
Elegiac  Distich,  615. 
Elements  of  sentences,  856  ff. 
-elis,  e  in,  587,  L,  4. 
Elision,  608, 1. 
-ella,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Ellam  for  en  illam,  186,  3. 
Ellipsis,  636,  I. 
-ellum,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Ellum,  for  e»  ilium,  186,  3. 
-ellus  in  nouns,  321,  4;  ndjs.,  332, 

N.I. 

Eluvfcs,  defective,  122,  3. 
-em  in  ace.,  62. 
Emotion,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 

410,  V.,  2 ;  535,  III. 
Emphasis  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. 
Emphatic  forms  of  pronouns,  184.  3 : 

185,    N.    2.      Emphatic    adverbial 

phrases,  305,  N.  4. 
En,  3_12,  1 ;  w.  demonstratives,  186, 

3  ;  in  exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  3). 
-en,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 

Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -en, 

585,  III.,  2. 
-@na,  g  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
Enallage,  636,  IV. 
Enclitics,  accent,  18,  2,  1) ;  quant., 

579,  L,  1. 

End,  dat.  of.  384,  1,  3).     End  of  sen- 
tence emphatic,  561,  n. 
Endeavoring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498, 

H.,  N.  1. 

Ending,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  L,  1. 
Endings  of  genitive,  47 ;    of  cases, 

Decl.  L,  48:  49;  Decl.  II.,  51,  2, 

3);  52:  Decl.  III.,  62,  L,  2;  67; 

Decl.  IV.,  116 ;  117 ;  Decl.  V.,  120 ; 

121;  in  compar.,  162;  conj.,  218- 

216. 

Endo,  o  in,  581,  H.j  1. 
English  pronunciation  of  Latin,  9  ff. 
-8nl,  e  in,  587,  L,  8. 


Enim,  310,  5 ;  554,  V.,  8 ;  position, 
_569,  III. 

EnUor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Enneasy liable  verse,  619, 1. 

-€nsis,  adjs.  in,  330;  331. 
i  -ent.  suffix,  320,  II. 
:  -entia,  -entio,  suffixes,  p.  155,  foot- 
note 9. 
entior.    entissimus.  in  compar., 

164. 
!  -ento,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  9. 

Enumerative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
note 1. 

-enus,  gin,  587,  I.,  5. 

Ed,  Ire,  w.  sup.  in  -um,  546,  2 ;  Iri  w. 
do.,  546,  3.  /in  Ibam,  ibd,  etc.,  586, 
III.,  4.  /in  itum,  590, 1. 

Ed,  adverb,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  II. ; 
554,  IV.,  1 ;  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot- 
note 3. 

Eddem,  305,  II. 

Epenthesis,  635,  4. 

Ephesiis,  decl.,  51,  8. 

Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 

Epiphora,  636,  III.,  4. 

Epitome,  decl.,  50. 

Epizeuxis,  636,  III.,  5. 

-eps,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Epulum,  epulae,  143,  3. 

Equester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Equivalents,  metrical,  598. 

-er,  nouns  in,  gend.,  53;  99;  103; 
decl.,  51,  4;  60,  3;  adjs.  in,  decl., 
62,  IV.,  N.  1 ;  150,  N. ;  153;  N.  2; 
compar.,  163, 1.  Quant,  of  increm. 
of  nouns  in  -er,  585,  III.,  4. 

-6re  for  erunt,  236. 

Erga,  p.  149,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  433, 1. ;  after  adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 ; 
for  gen.,  396,111.,  N.  1. 
!  Ergo,  310,  4;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 
gen.,  398,  5. 

erunt  for  -erunt,  236,  N. ;  586,  II.  4. 

Es  attached  to  preceding  word,  27,  N. ; 
e  in,  579,  3 ;  in  compos.,  581,  VI.,  2. 

-es,  -es,  suffixes,  820,  II.  Nouns  in 
-es,  327;  decl.,  65,  1;  80;  120; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4; 
gend.,  99;  104;  105;  109;  120. 
Decl.  of  nouns  in  -es,  81 ;  gend. . 
99 ;  104.  Es  or  -es  final,  580,  III. ; 
581,  VI.  A  in  voc.  of  Greek  nouns 
in  -es,  p.  341,  foot-note  1. 

esimus,  e  in,  587,  III.,  3. 

Esse  omitted,  534,  N. 

Essential  elements  of  sentences,  357, 1. 

-easo.  -essim,  in  fut.  pert,  and 
perf.  subi.,  240,  4, 

-esso,  verbs  in,  386,  >i .  1. 

Est  drops  initial,  27,  N.     Est  ut,  498, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJJKVT8. 


401 


II.,  N.  2.  Est,  impers.,  constr.,  p.  I 
276,  foot-note  2.  Egt  at  end  of  line,  I 
613,  N.  3. 

-ester,  -estris,  adjs.  in,  330, 1. 

Et,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as,  451, 
5;  than,  459,   2.      Et — et,  et—que,  [ 
que — et,  neque  (nee) — et,  et — neque  \ 
(nee),  554,  I.,  5.      Et   in  poetry,  | 
position,  569,  III.,  N.     Preps,  re- 
peated w.  et — et,  636,  III.,  6. 

-et  in  Plautus  for  -et,  580,  HI.,  N.  2. 

-eta,  e  in,  587, 1.,  7. 

-etas,  e  in.  587,  II.,  4. 

Etenim,  310,  5 ;  554,  V.,  2. 

Ethical  dat.,  389. 

Etiam,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2,  4,  and  5. 

Etiamsi',  etsi,  311 ,  4 ;  in  concessions, 
515,11.  JEfci  =  'yet,Jetc.,515,  N.  2.  ! 

-gtum,  nouns  in,  323 ;  e  in,  587, 1.,  7.  ! 

-etus,  e  in,  587, 1.,  7. 

Etymology,  37-344.    Figures  of  ety-  • 
mol.,  634,  N. ;  635. 

Eu,  sound,  6, 1 ;  12. 

Euqe,  interj.,  312,  2  and  6. 

Euhoe,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Euphemism,  637,  XI.,  4. 

Euphony  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. 
eus.  adjs.  in,  329 ;  -eus,  331.    -Eus 
in  prop,  nouns,  e  in,  577,  5,  N. 

Eventt,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Evoe,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Ex,  e,  in  compds.,  344.  5;  w.  dat., 
386,  2;  w.  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Ex,  w. 
abl.  for  part,  gen.,  397,  N.  8.  Ex, 
e.w.  abL,  434;  434, 1.  E,  ex,  434, 
N.  2.  Ex,  e,  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot- 
note 1. 

-ex,  -ex,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  92 ;  93. 
Compds.  in  -ex,  341,  1. 

Exadversum,  exadversus,  w.  ace.,  433. 

Exanimw,  exammis,  159,  III. 

Exchanging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  422, 
N.  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  355 ;  ace.  in, 
381 ;  voc.,  nom.,  dat.  in,  381,  N.  3 ; 
infin.  in,  539,  III. 

Existvm&,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Exonerd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Exos,  -os  in,  581,  VII.,  1. 

Expedio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Expers  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Explicative  asyndeton,  p.  870,  foot- 
note 1. 

Exposed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Exsequias,  ace.  of  limit,  380,  2,  3). 

Exsoivo,  constr.,  p.  210,  foot-note  1. 

Exsors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

ExtemplO,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Extent  of  space,  ace.  of,  379. 

External  object,  371,  I.,  1. 


Exterus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Extra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2:  w.  aco., 

433 ;  433,  I. 

Extremus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Exuo,  constr.,  377 ;  p.  198,  footnote 

1 ;  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 


Fac  for  face,  238.  Fac  ne  w.  subj.  in 
prohibitions,  489,  2).  A  in  fac. 
579,  3. 

Fades,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Fatilis,  compar.,  163,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Facio,  accent  of  compds.,  18,  2,  2). 
Facio  omitted,  368,  3,  N.  1.  Facio 
w.  dat.,  385,  3 :  w.  pred.  gen.,  403  ; 
w.  abl.,  415,  ILL,  N.  1.  Facio  ut, 
498,  II.,  N.  2.  Facw  w.  sub].,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2;  499,  2;  501,  ll.,  1. 
E  before  /  in  compds. ,  594,  6. 

-facto,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

FacuUds,  facilitates,  132. 

Falsus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Fama  fert  w.  infin.,  535, 1.,  8. 

Fames,  abl.  fame,  137,  2. 

Familia,  genitive,  49,  1.  Familid, 
constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Far,  decl.,  63,  2,  N. ;  133,  N. 

Fas,  defect.,  134;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Fastidioxm  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot- 
note 3. 

Faux,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Favorite  vowel,  24. 

Fax,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (8). 

Faxdjfaxim,  &)TfecerO,fecerim,  240, 4. 

Fearing,  constr.  w.  veros  of,  498,  III. 

Febris,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Feeling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  HI. ; 
410,  V.,  2  ;  535,  III. 

Feet  in  versification,  597. 

Fel.  defective,  133,  4,  N. 

Felix,  decl.,  156. 

Feminine,  42,  II.    Fern,  caesura,  61 1,N. 

Fer  for  fere,  238  ;  e  in,  579,  3. 

-fer,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  decl.,  61,  4, 
2) ;  adjs.  in,  150,  3),  N. 

Fere,ferm<>,  e  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

FerO  and  compdn.,  increm.  of,  586,  1. 

Feror.  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

FertiUs  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  8. 

Ferus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Festivals,  plur.  in  names  of,  explained, 
131,  N. ;  plur.  in  -alia,  decl.,  186,  8. 

-fex,  comixls.  in,  341,  1. 

-flc5,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

-flcus,  adJH.  in,  342, 1  ;  compar.,  164. 

Fidelis  w.  dat..  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Fidi,  tin,  590,  1. 


402 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Fi<ld  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Fifth  decl., 120  ff. ;  «  final  in,581,  IV. ,1. 

FIGURES  of  prosody,  608.  Fig.  of 
speech,  634  ff. ;  of  etymology,  634, 
H. ;  635 :  of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  636 ; 
of  rhetoric,  634,  N. ;  637. 

Filia,  decl.,  49,  4. 

Filix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  243,  foot- 
note 2. 

Filling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

FINAL  conjunctions,  311,  5 ;  555,  V. 
Final  vowels  and  syllables,  quant, 
of,  580 ;  581.  Fin.  syl.  of  verse,  605. 
Fin.  syl.  elided,  608,  I.  Fin.  long 
vowel  or  diphthong  shortened  in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  N.  3. 

Finis,  decl.,  62,  IV. ;  singular  and 
plur.,  132. 

Finite  verb,  199,  N. 

Finitimus,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes 
1  and  3. 

Fid  w.  two  date.,  390,  N.  1,  1);  w. 
abl.,  415,  III.,  N.  1.  Fit,  constr., 
p.  276,  foot-note  2.  I  or  *  in  fid, 
577, 1.,  3,  (1).  ^before/in  compos., 
594,  6. 

First  decl.,  48  ff. ;  «  final  in,  581,  IV.,  1. 
First  conjugat. ,  205  ff. ;  223  ff. ;  257  ff. 

Fiagito  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Flood,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Flog,  decl.,  61. 

Following,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
I.,  1. 

Foot,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Roman  foot,  648,  IV. 

'  For,'  how  translated,  384,  3. 

Fords,  304,  I.,  1. 

Fore  ut,  537,  3. 

Foreign  words  indecl.,  128,  2. 

Forgetting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Font,  i  in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Formation  of  stems  of  verbs,  249  ff.  ; 
of  words,  313  ff. ;  of  nouns,  321  ff. 

Fornix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Fort,  defective.  134. 

Forsitan,  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  w.  subj.,  p. 
267,  foot-note  1. 

Fortuttus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Fortuna.fortuiMe.  132. 

Fourth  decl. ,  116  ff.  Fourth  conjugat. , 
211  ff. ;  229  ff. ;  284  ff. 

Fractions,  174, 1. 

Fraudo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Fraus,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Free  from,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 

Frtnum,  pl.freni,  frena,  143,  2. 

Frequentatives,  336. 


Fretm  w.  abl    425, 1, 1),  N. 

Fricatives,  3,  II.,  4. 

Friendly,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

391,  I.  and  II. 
Fructus,  decl^  116. 
Frual,  indeclin.,   159,  I.  ;    compar., 

165,  N.  2. 
Fruor,  constr.,  421,  I.  ;  421,  N.   4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Frux,  defective,    133,  3  ;    quant,   of 

increm.,  535,  V.,  2. 
Fuam  for  sim,  204,  2. 
Fulness,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1..  3. 
Fungor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Fur,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 
Furnishing,  constr.  w.   verbs  of,  p. 

225,  foot-note  3. 
FUTURE,  197 ;  222.    Fut.  indie.,  470 ; 

for  iinperat.,  487, 4.    Fut.  in  condit. , 

511,  1,  N.  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  p. 

293,  foot-note    2.      Fut.  in    subj., 

479 ;  481 ;  496.    Fut.  imperat.,  487, 

2.     Fut.  infin.,   537  ;    periphrast., 

537,  3.    Fut.  particip.,  550. 
FUTURE  PERFECT,  197,  II.  ;  222,  II. ; 

473;  in  subj..  496;  in  indir.  disc., 

525,  2  ;  in  infinit.,  537,  3,  N.  2.    -I* 

in  fut,  perf.,  581,  VIII.,  5. 
Futurum  esse  ut,  537,  3.      Futurum 

sit,  esset,  ut,  p.  272,  foot-note  2. 

G 

G  formed  from  O,  2,  2 ;  sound,  7 ;  13 ; 
changed  to  c,  33, 1 ;  assimilated  to 
m,  34,  3 ;  dropped,  36,  3. 

Gauded,  constr.,  p.  221,  foot-note  2 ; 
p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Gavlsus,  i  in,  586,  HI.,  2. 

Gemo  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N. 

Gems,  gend.  of  names  of,  53,  1. 

Gender,  41  ff. :  Decl.  I. ,  48 ;  DecL  II., 
53;  Decl.  III.,  99-115;  Decl.  IV., 
118.  Decl.  V.,  123;  general  table, 
124. 

Gener,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

General  relatives,  p.  75,  foot-note  3. 
Gen.  rel.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  Gen. 
subject,  460, 1,  N.  2.  Gen.  truths, 
467,  II. ;  in  conditions,  508,  5  ;  511, 
1.  Gen.  negat.,  553,  1  and  2. 

Genere,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

GENITIVE,  endings  of,  47  ;  Decl.  I.,  at 
for  ae}  urn  for  drum,  49 ;  Decl.  II., 
i  for  *t,  51,  5 ;  um  for  drum,  52,  3 ; 
on  for  drum,  54,  N.  1 ;  Decl.  III., 
um  or  ium,  p.  36,  foot-notes  3  and 
4;  p.  38,  foot-note  2;  p.  40,  foot- 
note 3 ;  yos,  ys,  68,  2 ;  on,  68  4 ; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


403 


Decl.  IV.,  wis,  uos,  for  «*,  117 ; 
Decl.  V.,  l,  «,  &,  for  &,  121.  Gen. 
in  adjs.,  158,  2.  -Us  in  gen.,  581, 
IX.,  2. 

GENITIVE,  syntax,  393  ff. ;  how  ren- 
dered, 393,  N.  Gen.  w.  possessives, 
363,  4,  1);  w.  nouns,  395;  varie- 
ties, 396 ;  in  special  constructions, 
398;  406  S. ;  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  4; 
399 ;  w.  verbs,  401  if.  Pred.  gen., 
401  ff. ;  of  price,  404 ;  405.  Ace. 
and  gen.,  409.  Gen.  w.  adverbs, 
397,  4.  Gen.  of  ger.,  542,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  gen.  w.  adj.,  565,  2;  between 
prep,  and  case,  569,  II.,  8. 

Gemtus  w.  abl.,  415,  II. 

(rentes,  Roman,  how  designated.  331, 
N.  2. 

Gentile  nouns,  831,  N.  1. 

Venus,  circumlocutions  w.,  686,  III.. 
10. 

-ger,  compds.  in,  342,  1;  decl.,  51, 
4,2);  adjs.,  150,  N. 

GERUND,  200,  II. ;  endings,  248.  Ger- 
und in  sequence  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Syntax  of  gerund,  541 ;  542.  Ger. 
w.  pass,  meaning,  541,  N.  Cases 
of  ger.,  542.  Gcr.  w.  gen.,  mei, 
etc.,  542,  I.,  N.  1 ;  denoting  pur- 
pose, 542, 1.,  N.  2:  542,  111.,  N.  2. 

GERUNDIVE,  200,  IV.  ;  syntax,  543. 
Gerund,  constr. ,  543,  N. ;  544 ;  de- 
noting purpose,  544,  2,  N.  2 ;  w. 
official  names,  544,  2,  N.  3;  after 
comparat.,  544,  2,  N.  4. 

GZgnt)  w.  genul,  aenitum,  592,  2. 

Giving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  date.,  390, 
N.  I,  2). 

Glades,  decl.,  122,  8. 

Glv*.  decl.,  p.  88,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of'increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Glyconic  verse,  604,  N.  1:  628,  III. 
and  VII. ;  631,  IV. -VI. 

Gn  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N.  2. 

Grwrus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Gnomic  perfect,  471,  5. 
Sf6,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  60,  4. 

Going,  verbs  of,  w.  two  date.,  890,  N. 

Golde_n  age,  040,  II.,  1. 

Gracilis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Gratia,  gratiae,  132. 

Gratis,  iin,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Grdtmtus,  t  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2 

Grdtw  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1, 

Graviter  fero,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot- 
note 2. 

Greater  Ionic,  597,  N.  1 ;  Archilo- 
chian,  628,  X.;  616,  N. ;  619,  N.; 


Asclepiadean,  628,  V. :  Sapphic, 
628,  VII. ;  Alcaic,  628,  IX. 

GREEK  NOUNS,  Decl.  !„  50 ;  Decl.  II., 
54 ;  Decl.  III.,  68.  Long  vowels  in 
Greek  nouns,  577,  5.  7,  _t,  in  dat. 
and  voc.,  581,  1.,  2.  -A  in  voc., 
581,  III.,  2.  -E  in  plur.,  581,  IV., 
1.  -As  in  ace.,  581,  V.,  2.  -Es  in 
Greek  words,  581,  VI.,  8;  -os,  581, 
VIL,  2;  -us,  581,  IX.,  8.  A  in 
increm.  of  nouns  in  a  and  as,  585, 
I.,  3.  0  in  increm.,  585,  II.  j  5;  t 
in  words  in  -«n,  585,  III.,  2 ;  m  -e» 
and-er,  585,  111.,  4.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem.  of  words  in  -ax,  585, 1.,  4,  (8). 
/  in  increm.,  585.  IV.,  8, 

Grimm's  law,  638,  N.  2. 

Gru»,  decl.,  66,  2. 

Gri/ps,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  8. 

Guilt,  adjs.  ofj  w.  genit.,  899, 1.,  8. 

Gutturals,  3,  II. ;  before  *,  80.  Gut- 
tural stems,  59. 

H 

H  changed  to  c,  83, 1.  N.  1 ;  following 
other  consonants,  does  not  lengthen 
preceding  syllable,  576,  1,  N.  1. 
Syllable  before  h  short,  577. 

Habed,  meaning,  p.  202,  foot-note  8, 
w.  two  aces.,  373,  1,  N.  1 :  w.  perf. 
part.,  888, 1,  N. ;  w.  two  oats.,  890, 
N.  1,  2). 

/Idc,  804,  II.,  8;  305,  V. 

Hadria,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Haec  tor  hoe,  p.  72,  foot-note  7. 

Hdlitus.  i  in,  p.  845,  foot-note  2, 

Happening,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  601, 
1.,  1. 

Hand,  use,  552. 

Zfe/a,  interj.,  312,  6 ;  a  in,  681, 1IL,  8. 

.^w.intcrj.,312, 1: w.  dat., 881,  N.  8,8. 

Hendiadys,  636,  lil.,  2. 

Hepar.  quimt.  of  increm.,  686,  L,  4, 1. 

Hephtnemimeral  caesura,  p.  866,  foot- 
note 4. 

HephthemiiiierLuj  697,  M.  2. 

Hires,  quant,  of  increm.,  686,  III.,  8. 

Heroic  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Herds,  decl.,  68. 

Hetcroclites,  127  ;  185  fl. ;  adjs.,  169, 
III. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  127 ;  141  ft. 

Heu,  interj.,  312, 3 ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2. 
Beu  in  hiatus,  «08,  II.,  1. 

Heux,  interj.,  312,  5. 

Hexameter,  603,  notes  2  and  6  ;  «09  fl. 

Hiatus,  608,  II. 

Hfber,  decl.,  51,  4,  8);  quant.  0*  i» 
crera.,  585,  111.,  8. 


404 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


Hie,  186;  191 ;  use,  450;  f  in,  579, 8.    6 

in  Me,  579, 3.    fide  redundant,  636, 

III.,  7. 
Hie,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305, 1. ;  w.  gen.,  p. 

209,  foot-note  3. 
Hilarus,  hilaris,  159,  III. 
Hinc,  305,  III. 

Hindering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Historical  tenses,  198;  hist,   present, 

467.  III. ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N. 

1 ;  hist,  perfect,  198,  1 ;  197,  N.  1 ; 

471,  11.     Hist,  tenses  in  sequence, 

491  ff.     Hist,  infln.,  536,  1. 
Hdc.  304,  II.,  3,  N. 
Hodie,  120,  N. ;  304,  II.,  1 ;  e  in,  p. 

341,  foot-note  2;  o  in,  594,  10. 
Honestue  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Horace,  logaoedic  verses  in,  628 ;  ver- 
sification, 630  ff. ;  lyric  metres,  681 ; 

index,  632. 

Horreo  w.  ace.,  371,  HI.,  N. 
ffdrsum,  305,  II. 
Hortative  subj.,  484,  II. 
Hortor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Hortus,  horti,,  182. 
Hospitm.  i  in,  p.  845,  foot-note  2. 
Hostile,  constr    w,   adjs.  signifying. 

391,  II.,  1. 
Hostis,  decl.,  62. 
Hours.  Roman,  645 ;  645,  2. 
H  S,  signification,  647,  3. 
Hue,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  805,  IL ;  w.  gen., 

p.  209,  foot-note  8. 
Hujuvrnodi,  186,  4,  N. 
Bumilis,  compar.,  168,  2. 
Humus,  gend.,  53,  1 ;  A«mi,   locat, 

426.  2. 
'  Husband,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 

1,  N.  2. 

ffuardps.  quant,  of  increm.,  586. 11.,  2. 
Hypallage,  636,  IV.,  2. 
Hyperbaton,  636,  V. 
Hyperbole,  637,  VI. 
Hypermetrical,  603.  N.  8. 
Hypothetical,  see  Conditional. 
Hysteron  proteron,  686,  V.,  2. 

1 

I  for  J,  p.  2,  foot-note  1.  /,  i,  wound, 
5;  10  ff.  /final  shortened,  21,  2, 
3).  /  interchanged  with  j,  28 ; 
dropped,  36,  4.  /  for  il  and  ie, 
51,  5.  /-nouns,  55;  z-verbs,  211. 
Stems  in  *',  62  ff. ;  origin  of,  p.  35, 
foot-note  8.  Nouns  in  1, 71 ;  gend., 
111.  -/in  abl.,  62;  for  ii,  121, 1 ; 
in  adverbs,  804,  II.,  2;  304,  III.,  1. 
T.»,  *r  i  final,  580,  I. ;  581,  I.;  in 


increments  of  decl..  585:  588,  IV.; 
conj.,  586:  586,  III.  /  as  conso- 
nant, 608,  III.,  H.  2. 

-ia,  suffix,  320.  11.  Nouns  in  -ia, 
325 ;  -ia  and  les,  138. 

-ia  in  prop,  names,  I  in,  677,  5,  N. 
iacus,  adjs.  in,  331 ;  a  in,  587, 11.,  '2 

-lades,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Iambic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  621  ft. ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XVI. 

Iambus,  597.  ii. ;  irrational,  598, 1,  2). 

-ianus,  adjs.  in,  331. 

-Ibara  for  -iebam,  240,  i. 

Iber,  decl.,  51, 4, 3);  quant,  ot  increm., 
585,  III.,  3. 

Ibi,  304.  111.,  2;  305, 1.  and  IV. ;  I  in, 
681, 1.,  2 ;  quant,  of  ult.  in  compds,, 
594.  9. 

-ibilis,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  IV.,  1. 

-{bo,  -ibor,  for  -iam,  -iar,  240,  2. 

fbus,  for  «i«=w,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

-icius,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Ictus,  599;  place  in  hexam.,  612. 

-icus,  adjs  in,  330 ;  331 ;  ccmpar.. 
169,3.  'Imicvs,  687, 11.,  2. 

-icus,  adjs.  in?  335,  5. 

Id  ago  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  &> 
Id  redundant,  636,  111.,  7. 

Idcirco,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Idem,  decl.,  186,  VI.;  w.  dau,  891, 
N.  1.  Use  of  Idem.  451. 

Ideo,  554,  IV.,  2. 

-ides  or  -Ides,  in  patronymics,  6S7, 

Ides','.642, 1.,  8. 

-I  d  6,  i  in,  587, 1.,  2. 

Iddneux  w.  dat,  p.  205,  foot-dote  1. 

Jdoneus  qul  w.  subj.,  603, 11.,  2. 
Idus,  gend.,  118. 
-idus.  i  m,  587,  II.,  2. 
-16,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-iensis  adjs.  in,  331. 
-ier  tor  i  in  infinit..  240,  6. 
-ifis,  nouns  in,  825,  N.  1 ;  327;  -t** 

and  -ia,  138. 
-iginti,  quant,  of  antepen.,  687,  111. 

S. 
Igitur,  310,  4;  554,  IV.,  3;  position. 

569,  111. 
Tyndrus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-not*  8 

p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
jfarnis,  decl..  62. 

Ignotus  w.  dat.,  p.  205.  foot-note  1. 
-Ig6,  nouns  in,  324,  N, ;  327,  4,  N.  ; 

I  in,  587,  I.,  2. 

-lie,  nouns  in,  323;  i  in,  587, 1.,  4. 
Ilico,  804,  IL,  1,  N. ;  o  in,  581,  IL,  1 
Jlion,  decl.,  54. 
-ills,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  8;  16& 

1,     1  '<n  -ili&.  58t  U.,  5. 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


405 


His.  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 
/inito,  587,  II.,  N.  1. 

ilia.,  nouns  in,  321.  4. 

lilac,  305,  V. 

Illative  conjs.,  310,  4 ;  554,  IV. 

/lie,  186;  191;  use,  450;  position, 
569,  I.,  1.  Ittud  redundant,  036, 
III.,  7. 

Illlc,  ded..  186,  2. 

Title,  804,  III.,  2;  305,  1. 

Tllinc,  305,  III. 

-illo,  verbs  in,  339. 

Kid,  Hide,  illuc,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  illftc, 
305,  II. 

Illudo,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
illus,   -ilium,   noons    in,  321,  4; 
adjs.,  332,  N.  1. 

-im  in  ace.,  62;  for  -am  or  -em  in 
pres.  subj.,  240,  3.  Ad  verbs  in -w», 
p.  144,  foot-note  3. 

Jmbecillis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Jmber,  decl.,  62,  N.  2;  65, 1,  2). 

Imbutt,  constr.,  p.  226,  foot-note  3. 

Immemor  w.  gen.,  p.  210,   foot-note 

3;  quant,  ofincrem.,  585, 11.,  8. 
imonia,  nouns  in,  325;  o  in,  587, 

III.,  4. 

imonium,  nouns  in,  324 ;  6  in,  587, 
III..  4. 

Impeckmentiim,  impedimenta,  132. 

Impt.ll6,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

IMPERATIVE,  196,  111.  Syntax,  487  ff. 
Imperat.  in  prohibitions,  488  ft'. ;  in 
incur,  disc.,  523,  III.  Imperat.  sen- 
tences, 354.  Imperat.  subj.,  484, 
IV.  £  in  imperat.,  Conj.  11.,  581, 
IV.,  8. 

IMPEBFECT   TENSE,   197,   I.;    222,   I. 
Imperf.  indie.,  468  ff . ;  subj.,  480;  i 
in  subj.  of  desire,  483,  2 :  in  potent, 
subj.,  485,  N.  1 ;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493 :  495,  III. ;  for  future  time,  496, 
I.;  in  condit,,  507,  111.;  510;  513, 
N.  1;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  3;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.   1  ;  518,  1  ;  ' 
519,  2,  N.  1;  520,  11.;  521,  II. 

Imperltus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3  ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Impero,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 
p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  ff. ;  impers. 
pass.,  195,  11.,  1  ;  534,  1.  Clauses 
of  result  as  subjects  of  impers.  verbs,  : 

501, 1., :. 

hnpertio,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 
Impetro,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Impled,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1  ;  p.  225, 

foot-note  3. 
Imploring  eonstr  w.  verbs  of,  374,  2, 

N    o 


i,  of  in,  581,  VII.,  1 ;  quant,  ot 


Jmpos,  06  in,  581,  VI 
increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 


Impotens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Imprudent  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3;  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Impulse,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  14. 

Imputing,  two  datives  w.  verbs  of 
890,  N.  1,  2). 

fmug,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

-in,  suffix,  320,  II. 

/«,  308 ;  in  compds.,  344,  5  and  6 ;  w. 
dat.,  386.  In  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435; 
435,  N.  1 ;  435,  I. :  w.  ace.  after 
adjs.,  391,  11.,  1;  for  «enit.,  396, 
111.,  N.  1.  In.  w.  abl.  for  genii., 
397,  3,  N.  3.  In  w.  ger.,  p.  315. 
foot-note  5;  p.  316,  foot-note  1.  / 
in  in,  579,  3. 

-ma,  nouns  in,  324. 

Incassum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Iitcedo.  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Inceptives,  280 ;  337. 

Incertm  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inchoatives,  337. 

Inclination,  constr.  w.  ad]s.  of,  391, 
II.,  1,  (2). 

Inclutws,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Irtcrfdibilis  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Increments,  quant,  in,  582  ff. ;  decl., 
585 ;  com.,  686. 

Inde,  304.  III.,  N. ;  305,  III. ;  310,  4. 

Indeclinable  nouns.  127,  I.;  128; 
gend.,  42,  N.  Indecl.  adjs.,  15'J,  I. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  189 ;  455  ff.  In- 
def.  relat.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  In- 
def.  subject,  460,  1,  N.  2  •  518,  2. 

Independent  clauses,  348,  N.  2. 

Index  of  verbs,  p.  383;  lync  metre* 
of  Horace,  632. 

Indicative,  196,  1. ;  use,  474  ft.  In- 
dic.  for  subj.  in  condit.,  511. 

ludigeh,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1. 

JndfymiK.  constr.,  421,  III.,  421,  N. 
8.  Indlgnits  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  II., 
2.  Ind'ujnug  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Indigw,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  522;  moods  in 
prin.  clauses,  523;  in  sub.  clauses, 
524;  tenses,  525  :  persons  and  pro- 
nouns, 520 ;  condit.  sentences,  527. 
Direct  changed  to  indir..  -r>:}0;  indir. 
to  direct,  531.  Indirect  clauses.  528 
ff. ;  questions,  529 ;  subj.  in,  529, 
I. ;  indie.,  529,  7. 

INDIRECT  OBJECT,  382  ff  ;  w.  direct 
object,  384,  II. 

Indo-European  languages,  638. 

Indu,  it  in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 

Indued,  constr.,  377. 

Indulging,  dat.  w.  verbs  of.  385.  II 


406 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


Indud,  constr.,  377  ;  p.  198.  foot-note  1. 

-infe,  nouns  in,  322,  N. ;  I  in,  587, 1.,  3. 

In/erne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Inferus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Infidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Tnfimus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

INFINITIVE,  200,  I. ;  origin,  p.  156, 
foot-note  1  ;  gend.,  42,  N. ;  end- 
ings, 248.  Infin.  in  sequence  of 
tenses,  495,  4.  Infin.  in  relat. 
clauses,  524,  1, 1)  j  after  cone's.,  524, 
1.  2).  Construction  of  innn.,  532 
ff.  Infin.  w.  verbs,  533.  Infin.  of 
purpose,  533,  II.  Infin.  w.  adjs., 
533,  II.,  3;  w.  verb,  nouns,  etc., 
533,  3,  N.  3 ;  w.  preps.,  533,  3,  N. 
4 ;  w.  verbs  w.  ace.,  534 ;  535.  Sub- 
iect  of  infin.,  536.  Histor.  infin., 
536,  1.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537.  Infin.  as  sub- 
ject, 538.  Infin.  in  special  constr., 
539;  as  pred.,  539,  I.;  as  appos., 
539,  II. ;  in  exclamations,  539,  III. ; 
in  abl.  abs.,  539,  IV. 

Infitias,  constr.,  380,  2,  3). 

Influence,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  1). 

Infra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  433,  I. 

Ingratls,  Is  in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Inaratus  w.  dat.,  p.  205?  foot-note  1. 

Inheritance,  divisions  ot,  646,  3,  4). 

-inl,  quant,  of  pen.,  587, 1.,  8'. 

Inimlcus,  injucundus,  w.  dat.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  1. 

Injuring,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Innttor  w.  abl.,  425,  1, 1),  N. 

Inops  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inquam,  position^  569,  V. 

Inquies,  quant.  ofincrem.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Inscieww.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Jnscius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inseparable  preps.,  308 ;  in  cotnpds., 
344,  6;  quant,  594,2. 

tnspergo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Instar,  defective,  134 ;  gen.  w.,  398,  4. 

INSTRUMENTAL  CASE,  367,  3 ;  411,  II. 
Instr.  abl.,  418  ff.  Abl.  of  instru- 
ment, 420. 

fnstruo,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

lumber,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

Insuetus  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3;  p. 
210,  foot-note  3 ;  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Insuper  w.  ace.  or  am.,  437,  3. 

Integer  w.  gen.,  399,  III.,  1. 

Intensives,  336. 

Inter  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Inter  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. ;  for  gen., 
397,  3,  N.  3;  w.  reciprocal  force, 
448,  N.  Inter  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 


Interchange  of  vowels  and  consonants, 
28;  2_9. 

Intercludo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Intercus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note  3. 

Interdiu,  interdiits,  interdum,  304,  I., 
2. 

Inter -ed,  304,  IV..  N.  2. 

Interest,  dat.  ot,  384,  1,  2).  Eom. 
computation  of  interest,  646,  3,  3). 

Interest,  constr.,  406,  III. ;  408. 

Interior,  compar.,  166. 

Interjections,  312 ;  556;  557;  w.  voc., 
369,  1 ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2;  w.  dat., 
381,  N.  3,  3) ;  389,  N.  2. 

INTERNAL  OBJECT,  371,  L,  2. 

Interne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

INTERROGATIVE  pronouns,  188 ;  454. 
Inter,  conjs.,  311,  8:  555,  VIII. 
Inter,  sentences,  351.  Inter,  words, 
351,  1.  Double  questions,  353. 
Inter,  sentences  w.  potent,  subj., 
486,  II. ;  in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.  In- 
direct questions,  528,  2 ;  529, 1. 

Interroqd  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Interval,  abl.  of,  430. 

Intimus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Infra  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433,  I. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193,11.;  195,  II., 
1 ;  372,  III.,  N.  3  ;  impers.  passive, 
465, 1. 

Intro-  in  compds.,  594,  8. 

Intus  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

-inus,  adjs.  in,  330, 331;  compar.,  169, 
8.  -Inus  or  -Inus  in  adjs.,  587,  II., 
5,  w.  N.  2. 

Invado,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Invicem,  304, 1.,  2. 

Inmtus,  compar.,  167,  2;  special  use 
of  dat.,  387,  N.  3.  Invitus  w.  force 
of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Id,  interi.,  312,  2. 

-15,  verts  of  Conj.  III.  in,  217  ff. ; 
quant,  of  stem-syllable,  588.  -70, 
-46,  suffixes,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  324 ; 
326. 

-ion  in  prop,  names,  i  in,  577,  5,  N. 

Ionic  feet,  597,  N.  1 ;  verse,  626 ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XIII. 

-ior  in  comparatives,  162.  -lOr,  suf- 
fix, 320,  II. 

-15s,  sufllx,  320,  II. 

Ipse,  decl.,  186,  V. ;  use,  452:  w.  abl. 
abs.,  431, 4,  N.  3.  Gen.  of  ipse  w 
possessive,  398,  3. 

Ipsus  for  ipse,  p.  73j  foot-note  5. 

-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  4. 

Iron  age,  640,  III.,  2. 

Ironical  condition,  507,  3,  N.  1. 

Irony,  637,  V. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


407 


IRRATIONAL  time,  596,  1,  N.  2.  Irrat. 
trochee,  598,  1,  1).  Irrat.  iambus, 
598,  1,  2). 

IBBEGDLAB  nouns,  127  ff. ;  adjs.,  159. 
Irreg.  comparison,  163  ff.  Irreg. 
verbs,  289  ff. 

Is,  decl.,  186  ;  correlat.,  191 ;  use,  450, 
4,  N.  2 ;  451.  Is—qui,  451,  4.  E  in 
II,  577, 1.,  2,  (1).  /in  is,  579,  3. 

-is,  decl.  of  adjs.  in,  62,  IV.,  N.  1 ; 
of  nouns  in,  65,  1 ;  82.  Gend.  of 
nouns  in,  105 ;  107.  -Is  in  adverbs, 
304,  I.,  3,  1).  -Is  in  ace.  pi.,  62; 
64 ;  67 ;  in  adverbs.  304,  II.,  1.  -Is 
or  -Is  final,  580,  111.,  w.  N.  2;  581, 

Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 

constrj,  380,  2,  2) ;  412,  II.,  1 ;  426, 1. 
issima.    issimo,  suffixes,  p.  156, 

foot-note  9. 
issimus,  a,  urn,  in  superlat.,  162 ; 

p.  157,  foot-note  9. 
isso,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 
Istdc,  305,  V. 
Me,  decl.,  186,  II.;  correlat.,  191 ;  use, 

450. 

Istic,  decl.,  186,  2. 
Istic,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305,  I. 
Istinc,  305,  III. 
Isto,  ustoc,  304,  II.,  3. 
Istuc,  304,  II.,  3  ;  305,  II. 
-It  in  Plautus  for  -it,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Ita,  305,  V.  ;   ita— si,   507,  3,   N.  2. 

Meaning  of  ita,  551,  N.  2.    Ut — ibi, 

w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1.     A  in  ita, 

581,  III.,  3.    Ita  redundant,   636, 

III.,  7. 

Itaque,  310,  4. 
-itas,  nouns  in,  324  ;  325  ;  i  in,  587, 

-iter,  i  in,  587,  II.,  4. 
itia,  nouns  in,  325. 
-iti6s,  nouns  in.  325,  N.  1. 

-ltim,iin,  587,  I.,7. 
itimus.  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 
itium,  nouns  in,  324. 
-116,  frequentatives  in,  336,  II. 
itudo,  nouns  in,  325;  *in,  587,IV.,1. 
itus  in  adverbs,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 2 ;  587,  II.,  4.     7  in  -Uus,  587, 
I.,  7. 

-iu,  suffix,  320,  II. 

~ium,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  5.  -lum 
in  gen.  pi..  62;  63;  64;  66;  67. 
Nouns  in  -»«»»,  324 ;  327. 
-ius,  suffix,  320,  II.  Decl.  of  nouns 
in  -ius,  51,  5.  Adjs.  in  -ius,  330 ; 
331 ;  333,  5.  /  or  i  in  ius  in  gen., 
577,  I.,  3^(3).  /  in  Ius  in  prop, 
names,  577,  5,  N. 


-Ivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5 ;  i  in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-ix,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  95.    -fx,  decl. 

of  nouns  in,  94 ;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  IV.,  1. 


J,  j,  modifications  of  /,  i,  2. 4 ;  sound, 
7 ;  effect  on  quantity  of  preceding 
syllable,  16,  L,  2;  576,  II. ;  576,  2; 
interchanged  with  i,  28;  dropped, 
36,  4. 

-ja,  suffix,  320, 1. 

Jacio,  spelling  and  pronunciation  of 
compos.,  36,  4. 

Jam,  compds.  of,  w.  present,  467,  2 ; 
w.  imperf.,  469,  2. 

-jans,  suffix,  320, 1. 

Jecur,  decl.,  77,  4. 

Jocus,  plur.jocLjoca,  141. 

-J6r,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Joy,  force  of  adjs.  expressing,  443, 

Jubar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1 ). 
JubeO,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1 ;  in 

pass..  534,  1,  N.  1. 
Jucundm  vv.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 

w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Judex^  decl.,  59. 
Judicw,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 
Jugerum,  decl.,  136,  1.    Jugerum  a« 

unit  of  measure,  648,  V. 
Jugnm,  quant,  of  syllable  before  j  tn 

compos.,  576,  2. 
Julian  calendar,  641. 
Jungd  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

abl.,419  1   \\ 
'Juppiter,  dccl.j  66,  8. 
Juratus  w.  active  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 
Jus,  decl..  61. 
Jusjuranaum,  decl.,  126. 
Jussd  forjusserfi,  240,  4. 
Juvenal,  versification,  630. 
Juvenis,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3 ;  coni- 

par.,  168,  4. 

Ju-vd  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 
Juxtd  w.  accus.,  433. 

K 

K  seldom  used,  2.  6. 

-ka,  suffix.  3'20,  I. 

Karthdq6,  decl.,  66,  4. 

Kindred  words  near  each  other,  568. 

Knowing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I., 

1;  535,  T.,I,  (2). 
Knowledge,  udjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  899,  I.. 

2:  p.  315,  foot-note  2;  w.  force  of 

adverbs,  443,  N.  1. 


408 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


L,  stems  in.  decl.,  60 ;  nouns  in,  decl., 
75;  gend..  111;  112.  Quant,  of 
finaljsyllables  in  I,  579,  2  ;  580,  II. 

-la,  la,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -la, 
321. 

Labials,  3,  II. ;  3,  N.  1, 1.,  3.  Labial 
stems,  57. 

Lacer,  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Lacrimd  w.  accus.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Lacus,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

LaedO  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Laetus  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Laevd,  constr.,  425,  2. 

Lampas,  decl.,  68. 

Language,  Latin,  638. 

Lapis,  decl.,  58. 

Ldr,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (1). 

Lassus  not  compared,  169,  4. 

LATIN  period,  573.  Lat.  lang.  and 
literature,  638.  Early  Latin,  639. 
Lat.  authors,  640. 

Learning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,   533, 

1  . ,    1* 

Leaving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 

N.  1,  2), 

Lengthening  of  vowelsj  20. 
-lens,  -lentus,  adjs.  in,  328. 
Led,  decl.,  60. 

Lepus,  quant,  of  increm.,  585?  II.,  3. 
Lesser  Ionic,  597,  N. ;  Archilochian, 

617,  N. ;    Asclepiadean,  628,  IV.; 

Sapphic,    628,   VI. ;    Alcaic,    628, 

vm. 

Letters,  classification,  3  ;  sounds,  5  if. 
Names  of  letters  indecl.,  128,  1. 
Tenses  in  letters,  472,  1. 

-lens,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Lead,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Lex,  quant,  of  increm. ,  585,  III. ,  3. 

-li.  suffix,  320,  II. 

Libens  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Liber,  Bacchus,  liberl,  decl.,  51,  4. 
lAber,  era,  erum,  149. 

Liberd,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5  ;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Libra,  648,  I. ;  divisions,  648,  I.,  1. 

Libra,  cOnstr.,  425,  2,  N.  1. 

Liceo  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Licet,  311, 4 ;  w.  subj.,  515,  III.  Ple- 
onasm w.  licet,  636,  III.,  9. 

Liger,  decl.,  66,  HI.,  1. 

Ltgus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Likeness,  dat.  w.  adjs.  of,  391,  I.; 
391,  II.,  4. 

Limit,  accus.  of,  380. 

Linter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 


Liqul,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Liquid  measure,  Bom.,  648,  III. 

Liquids,  3,  II.,  4;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N.  Liquid  stems,  60. 

Lls,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4 ;  quant. 

of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
lis,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Literature,  Lat.,  638. 

Litotes,  637,  VIII. 

Littera,  litterae,  132.  Litteras  dare, 
385,  1,  N. 

Litum,  i  in,  590,  1. 

-lo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

LOCATIVE,  45,  2  ;  48,  4 ;  51,  8 :  66,  4 ; 
120,  N.  Locatives  as  adverbs,  304, 
III.  Abl.  w.  locat.,363,4,  2).  Syn- 
tax of  locat.,  367,  2;  411,  III. ;  425, 
II. ;  426,  2.  Locat.  abl.,  425,  ff. 

Locd,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Locuples.    quant,    of    increm.,    585, 

IIL ,  3. 

i  Locus,  plur..  141.     Loco,  constr.,  415, 
II.,  N.     Loco,  lods,  constr.,  425,  2. 
j  Logaoedic  verse,  627  ff. 
I  Long  measure,  Rom.,  648,  IV. 

Long  syllables,  575.  Long  stem-syl- 
lables in  primitives,  595.  Final 
long  vowel  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
II.,  N.  3. 

Longlnqum,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Longiw  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 

-Is,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  90. 

iMctor  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Ludicer,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Ludm.  ludl)  132. 

Luis,  defective,  134. 

-lus,  -lum,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.,  332. 

Lux,  without  gen.  plur.,  133, 5  ;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Lycurgldes,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Lynx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Lyric  metres  of  Horace,  631 ;  index, 
632. 

M 

M  changed  to  n.  33,  4;  assimilated  to 

s,  34,  1,  N. ;  developing^,  34, 1,  N. 

Stems  in  m,  60.    Prepositions  in  m. 

p.  149.  foot-note  2.     Quant,  of  final 

syllables  in  m,  579,  2 ;  580,  II.    M 

final  elided,  608,  I. 
-ma,    ma.  suffixes,  320. 
Maereo,  constr.,  371,  IIL,  N.  1. 
Magis    in  comparison,  170 ;  444,  2, 

notes  1  and  2.     Aon  magis — quam, 

555,  II.,  1. 
M&gnua    compared,    165.      J/a<yxi, 

constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 
Major    in  expressions  of  age,  p.  222, 

foot-note  4. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


409 


Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces..  373. 

Mule  compared,  306,  2.  Dp.t.  w. 
compels,  of  male,  384,  4,  N.  1.  E  in 
male,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Maid,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ;  499, 
2:  p.  310,  toot-note  1.  Is  in  mavis. 
581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Malus,  compar.,  165. 

-man,  suffix,  320, 1. 

Jfanifestus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Manner,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2, 3).  Abl. 
of  manner,  419,  III.  Manner  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549, 1. 

Manus,  gend.,  118. 

Mare,  decl.,  63 ;  63,  2.  Marl,  constr., 
425,  2. 

Margarita,  plur.,  142. 

Martial,  metres,  633,  II. 

Mas,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Masculine  caesura,  611,  N. 

Mastery,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen..  399,  I.,  3 ; 
verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  410.  V.,  3. 

Material  expressed  by  abl.,  415.  Ma- 
terial nouns,  39,  2,  3) ;  plur.,  130,  2. 

Mdturus,  compar.,  163,  1,  N. 

MdtMlnas,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Maxime  in  adverbial  comparison,  170. 

Mtiziml,  constr.,  p.  213,  loot-notc  2. 

Means,  abl.  of,  418  ;  420.  Means  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2. 
Roman  measures,  646 ;  648. 

Mecastor,  interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Med  for  me,  184,  5. 

Medeor  w.  dat.,'385,  II.,  N.  3. 

Medial  vowels,  3,  I.,  2. 

Medius  designating  part.  440,  N.  2. 

Medius^  fidius,  mekercule,  mehercufa, 
interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Mel,  defect.,  133,  4,  N. 

Melius  w.  indicat.,  475,  5. 

Melos,  decl..  68,  6. 

Members  of  complex  sentences,  348, 

M'eme  for  ml,  184,  4. 

Memim  w.  gen.,  406,   II. ;   w.  ace., 

407  ;  w.  pres.  infin..  537, 1. 
Memor,  decl.,  158.     Memor  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3.     Quant,  of  in- 
crem. ofmemor,  585,  II.,  3. 
\femorabilis  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 

men,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 
Mendlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Mensa,  decl.,  48. 
Mf,n*i«.  decl..  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

mento,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  1. 

mentum,  nouns  in,  327. 
Mepte  for  me,  184,  5. 
Merces,  quant,  of  mcrcm.,  5.H5,  III.,  3. 


Meridies,  gend.,  123:  defect.,  130, 1, 4). 

Messis,  decl.,  62,  III.,  1. 

-met.  forms  in,  184,  3;  185,  N.  2. 

Metaphor,  637,  II. 

Metathesis,  635,  5. 

Metonymy,  637,  III. 

Metre,  601,  N.  3. 

Metrical  equivalents,  598.  Metr.  name 
of  verse,  603. 

Metuo,  constr.,  385,  1 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Mem,  decl.,  185,  N.  1. 

Ml  for  miM,  184. 

Middle  voice,  465. 

Miles,  decl.,  58. 

Militia,  decl.,  48,  4;  constr.,  426,  2. 

Mttle.  decl.,  159, 1. ;  use,  174,4;  178. 
Mllia  masc.  by  synesis,  461,  2. 

Million  sesterces,  how  denoted,  647, 

-min,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-mini  as  pers.  end.,  p.  118.  foot-note  3. 

Minimi,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-nota  2. 

-mind  in  imperat.,  240.  5. 

Minor  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Minor,  minus,  without  quam,  417,  N. 
2.  Miiwris,  constr.,  405;  p.  21.3, 
foot-note  2. 

Minus,  minime,  as  negatives,  552,  3. 
Non  minus — quam,  555,  II.,  1. 

Mlrificm,  compar.,  164,  N. 

Mlror  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w. 
een.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ;  p.  810, 
foot-note  2. 

Mlrum  w.  quantum.  305,  N.  4. 

Mlrus  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Mis  for  mel.  184,  5. 

Misceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3 ;  p.  201,  foot- 
note 1 ;  w.  ace.  and  dat..  p.  201, 
foot-note  2  ;  w.  abl.,  419,  1,  1),  (2). 

Miser,  decl.,  150,  N. 

Misereor,  mwer~escf>,  w.  gen.,  406.  Mi*- 
erescit,  miser'etur,  constr.,  410,  IV., 
N.  1. 

Miseret,  constr.,  409,  III. 

Mitto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

-mo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Mo<lero<;  constr..  385,  1. 

Modifiers,  357  ff.  Position  of  modi- 
fiers, of  nouns,  565;  adjs.,  566; 
verbs,  567  ;  adverbs,  568. 

Modius,  648,  II. 

Modo^  311,  3.  Modu,  modo  n't,  w. 
sub,j.  of  desire,  483,  6.  Modo  w. 
Bubg.  in  condit.,  513,  I.  NOn  modo 
— std  ftiam  (verum  etium),  554,  I., 
5.  O  final  in  modo  and  compds. ,  58 1 , 
II.,  1. 

Modus,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 


410 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Molestus  w.  dat.,  _p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Molpssus,  633,  111.,  1,  N. 
mon,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Moned,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  193,  foot- 
note 3 : 410,  L,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Money  ,JRoman,  646  ff. 
monia,  -monio,  suffixes,  p.  157, 
foot-note  1 ;  moma,  nouns  in,  827. 

-monium,  nouns  in,  327. 

Monocolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  8. 

Monometer,  603,  N.  2. 

Monosyllabic  preps,  repeated,  636, 
III.,  6. 

Monosyllables,  quant.,  579.  Mono- 
syllables at  end  of  line,  613,  N.  2. 

Months,  Roman,  641;  642,  III.,  2; 
names  of,  originally  adjs.,  p.  36, 
foot-note  2;  gender,  42,  I.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -her.  decl.,  65,  1,  1). 

MOODS,  196.  Mood  signs,  244  ff.  In- 
die., 466  ff.  Subj.,  477  ff. ;  490  ff. 
Imperat.,  487  ff.  Moods  in  subord. 
clauses,  490  ff. ;  in  condit.  sentences, 
506  ff. ;  in  concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ; 
in  causal  clauses,  516  ff. :  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ff.  ;  in  indir.  disc., 
523  ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses,  529.  In- 
finit,  532  ff. 

Morae  or  times,  597. 

J/08,  mores,  132. 

Motion  to,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) : 
385,  4,  1) ;  386,  3. 

Moved  w.  abl.,  414,  II. ;  w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2. 

-ins,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Mulciber,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Multi,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3. 

Multimodis,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Multiplication,  how  expressed,  174,  2, 
2). 

Multiplicarives.  173, 1. 

MulhtvM  w.  plur.  verb,  461, 1. 

Multus,  compar.,  165 ;  plur.,  175,  N.  3. 

Mus,  decl.,  64 ;  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Mutes,  3,  II.,  5. 

Mutt,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

N 

N  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2;  to  m,  34, 
3 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ;  36,  5,  3). 
Stems  in  n.  60.  Decl.  of  nouns  in 
»,  76  ;  gend.,  113.  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  n,  580,  II.,  w.  notes  1 
and  2.^ 
na.  -na,  suffixes,  320. 

Nam,  310, 5 ;  w.  emphasis,  351, 4,  N.  1. 

Name,  dat.  of,  387.  N.  1 ;  gen.  of,  387, 
N.  2.  Name  of  verse,  603. 

NAMES,  Roman,  331,  N.  3 ;  439, 4,  N. ; 


649.    Names  of  towns,  constr.,  880. 

II. ;  412,  II. ;  425,  II. ;  428. 
Namque,  310,  5 ;  554,  V.,  2. 
Nasals,  3,  II.,  2 ;  developing  vowels, 

29,  N. 

Natalie,  ndtdles,  132. 
Natusw.  abl.,  415,  II. 
Naucl,  constr.,  n.  213,  foot-note  8. 
Navis,  decl.,  62,  III. 
Nd  shortens  preceding  vowel,  p.  37, 

foot-note  2. 
-Ne,  interrog.  particle,  310, 2,  N. ;  811, 

8;  in  questions,  351,  1  and  2;  in 

double  questions,  353,  1 :  in  indir. 

questions,  529, 1  and  3.    Position  of 

-ne,  569,  III.,  4.    E  elided  before 

consonant,  608, 1.,  N.  2. 
Ne.  311,  4  and  5 ;  552 ;  w.  subj.  of 

desire,  483,  3  ;  489,  3 ;  w.  impe'rat., 

488  ;  w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497.  II. ; 

498,  III.,  notes  1  and  2 ;  omitted, 

499,  2.    He  in  concessions,  515,  HI. 
Ne  non,  552,  1.    Ne — qmdem,  553, 
2 ;  569,  III.,  2.    Ne  or  ne  as  prefix, 
594,  2. 

-ne,  nouns  in,  822,  N. 

Nearness,  dat.  w.  adjs.   of,  391,  I. ; 

j*en.,  391,  4. 
Nee,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2.    Nee— nee  (ne- 

que),  neo-—et  (que),  et — nee,  554, 1.,  5. 

Position  of  nee  in  poetry,  569,  in., 

N.    E  in  nee.  579,  3. 
Necessdriits  w.  dat., p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Necessary,  dat.  w.  adjs.   signifying, 

391, 1. 

Necesse  est,  constr.,  502, 1. 
Necne,  310,  2,  N. :  311,  8  ;  358,  2,  N. 

3 ;  529,  3,  2). 
Nectar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4, 

Necto  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Nedum  w.  subj.,  483,  3,  N. :  e  in,  594, 

2,  N.  2. 

Needing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  I. 
NefaS)  defect.,  134;  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 
Negatives,  552 ;  w.  subj.  of  desire 

483,  3.    Two  neg.,  553.    Gen.  neg. 

553,  1  and  2.    Position  of  neg.,  569 

iv.',  i. 

N&m6,  use,  457, 1 ;  followed  by  qmn 

p.  278,  foot-note  3.     E  in  ntmd.  534 

2,  N.  2. 

Nlnu,  u  in.  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 
Nepos,  decl.,  58. 
Nequam    indecl.,  159,    I.  ;  compar., 

165,  N.  2 ;  e  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Nequdquam,  e  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Neque,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2.  Neque— ne- 

que,  553,  2 ;  554,  I.,  5.     Neque — et, 

et — neque,  554,  I.,  5. 


INI) EX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


411 


M— quidem,  553,  2 ;  569,  III.,  2. 

Nequiquam,  nequUza,  I  in,  594,  2,  N. 
2. 

Ntrlig,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Nescio  quis,  qui,  191,  N. ;  455,  2.  Ne- 
sci6vf.  interrog.adv.,305,N.3.  Ne- 
scio quis,  quomodo,  w.  iudie.,  529,  5, 
3).  Nescti  an,  529,  3,  N.  2. 

Nescius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Neu,  see  JV^e. 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Neuter,  decl.,  151, 1. 


Ill  •  Decl.  IV.,  118.    Neuter  pron. 

oradj.,  as  cognate  ace.,  371,  II. ;  375 ; 

w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3 ;  in  pred.,  438, 

4.    O  in  increm.  of  neut.;  585,  II.,  1. 
Neve,  neu,  311,  5;  w.  subj.  of  desire, 

483, 3 ;  w.  imperat.,  488 ;  w.  subj.  of 

purpose,   497,  1,    N.     Neve — neve, 

552,2.     E\v  neve,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Nex,.  defect.,  133,  5. 
Nf  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N. 

2. 
Ni,  311,  3;  in  condit.,  507  ff.     M  = 

'but,'  'except,'  507,  3,  N.  3.     Ni 

for  ne,  552, 1. 
-ni,  suffix,  320. 

Night,  Roin.  division  of,  645  \  645,  1. 
m/M,  defect.,  134;   for  non,  457,  3. 

Nihil  almd  nisi,  nihil  aliud  quam, 

555,  III.,  1. 

Nikiti,  constr.,  404,  N.  2. 
Nimis  w.  genit.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
Nimi'um  quantum,  305,  N.  4. 
Niri,  311,  3 ;  in  condit,  507  ff.    Nisi 

=  '  but,'  '  except,'  507,  3,  N.  8 :  = 

'except,'  'than,'  555,  III.,  1.    Nisi 

si.  507,  3,  N.  4.     Nisi  quod,  nihil 

aliud  nisi.  555,  III.,  1.     /  final  in 

nisi,  581,  I.,  1. 
NUor,  constr.,  425, 1,  1),  N. ;  498,  II., 

N.  1. 
Nix,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  66;  w. 

short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 
-no,  suffix,  320,  II. 
Ndld,  constr.,  499,  2  ;  p.  310,  foot-note 

1.  Ndll,  nollte,  in  prohibitions,  489, 
1).     /in  noltte,  etc.,  586,  III.,  4. 

Nomen  w.  dat.,  387,  N.  1 ;  w.  gen., 
387,  N.  2.  Nomine  w.  gen.  of  crime, 
410,  II.,  1.  Nomen  m  name  of  a 
Rom.  citizen,  649. 

NOMINATIVE  neut.  pi.  in  adjs.,  158, 1. 
Syntax  of  nom.,  368 ;  two  nom.,  373, 

2.  Nom.  for  voc.,  369,  2.     Nom.  in 
exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  2).     -Eg  in 
nom.  sing.,   581,  VI.,   1 ;    -is,  581, 


Vm..2 ;  -us,  581,  IX.,  1 ;  in  plur.. 
581,  IX.,  2. 

Non,  p.  145,  foot-note  2;  552.  Jfdn 
modo  non,  non  solum  non,  552,  2. 
Non  solum  (non  modo  or  non  tan- 
turn) — sed  etiam  ( verum  etiam),  554, 
I..  5.  Non  minus — quam,  non-  ma- 
gw — quam,  555,  II.,  1.  Non  quo. 
quod,  quln,  quta,  w.  subj.,  516,  2. 
Non  w.  gen.  negat.,  553,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  non,  569,  IV. 

Nondum,  555, 1.,  1-. 

Nones,  642, 1.,  2. 

Nonne,  311,  8 ;  351, 1  and  2. 

Nos  for  ego,  noster  for  meus,  446,  N.  2. 

Nostrds,  'decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Nostri,  nostrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Notut  w.  dat.,  p.  205.  foot-note  1. 

NOUNS,  etymol.,  39  ff. ;  gend.,  40  ff. ; 
pers.  and  num.,  44 ;  cases,  45  ;  decl., 
46 ff.;  defect.,  122;  129ff. ;  indecl., 
128 ;  heteroclites,  135  ff. ;  hetero- 
geneous, 141  ff.  Syntax,  362  ff.  j 
agreement,  362  ff. ;  general  view  oi 
cases,  365  ff. ;  nom.,  368 ,  voc.,  369 ; 
ace.,  370  ff. ;  dat.,  382  ff. ;  gen.,  393 
ff. ;  abl.,  367;  411  ff. ;  w.  preps., 
432  ff.  Nouns  as  adjs.,  441,  3.  Po- 
sition of  modifiers  of  nouns,  566. 

Novvs.  compar.,  167,  2. 

Nox,  decl.,  p.  38.  foot-note  4. 

Nox-ius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

-ns,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3 ;  90.  Nn 
lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16, 
N.  2. 

Nt  dropped,  p.  19,  foot-note  9 :  short- 
ens preceding  vowel,  p.  87,  foot- 
note 2. 

-nu,  suffix,  320. 

Nublcula,  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

Nubes,  dec!.,  62. 

Nubo  w.  dat.,  385,  N.  3. 

Nudo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Nullus,  decl.,  151, 1 ;  for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.I;  use,  457,  2 ;  for  non,  467, 
3.  Nullus  followed  by  quln,  p.  278, 
foot-note  3. 

Num,  310,  2,  N. ;  811,  8;  851,  1 ;  in 
indir.  quest.,  529,  II.,  1,  N.  3. 

-num,  uouns  m,  327. 

Number,  44;  in  verbs,  199.  Gen.  in 
descriptions  of  number,  419.  2,  1). 

NUMERALS,  171  ff. ;  ndjs.,  172  ff. ;  decl., 
175  ff. ;  symbols,  180 ;  adverbs,  181 ; 
in  compounding  numbers,  174,  8. 
Numerals  w.  gen.,  397,  2.  Numer- 
als in  dates,  642,  III.,  I. 

Nummus,  647. 

Nunc,  304,  I..  4:  305,  IV. 


412 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Nuntior,  constr.,  534,  N.  1,  (2). 
Nuper,  304,  IV.,  N.  2 ;  compar.,  306, 4. 
-nus,  adjs.  in,  329. 
NOsquam  w.  gen.,  397,  4. 

0 

0,  6,  sound,  5 ;  10 ;  11.  0  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  0-nouns,  51.  Decl. 
of  nouns  in  o,  0,  60,  4 ;  72 ;  quant, 
of  increm..  585,  II.,  5,  (2);  gend., 
99;  100.  Num.  adverbs  in  -o.  181, 
N.  2.  Origin  of  0  final  in  verbs,  p. 
118,  foot-note  5.  Adverbs  in  -5, 
304,  II.,  1  and  2.  Superlat.  adverbs 
in  -5,  306,  6.  0  or  o,  filial,  580, 1. ; 
581,  II. ;  in  increm.  of  decl.,  585  ; 
585,  II. :  conj.,  586.  0,interj.,  312, 
1,  2,  and  5 ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2..  0 
si  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  0  in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

-o,  -6,  suffixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in  -6, 
326,  2. 

Ob  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Ob  w.  ace.,  433; 
433, 1. ;  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 

Obeying,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Obiter,  304, 1.,  2. 

OBJECT,  direct,  371 :  external.  371. 1.. 
1  ;  internal,  371,  I.,  2.  '  Object 
omitted,  371,  III.,  N.  4.  Infin.  or 
clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  540,  N. 
Indir.  object,  382  ff.  Object  clauses 
of  purpose,  498 ;  of  result,  501.  II. 

Objective  compds.,  343,  II.  Object, 
gen.,  396,  III 

Oblique  cases,  45,  1 ;  use  of,  370  ff. 

ObliVMdor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace., 
407. 

Oboeditn*  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 

Obviam^  304,  I.,  2. 

Occisit  tor  occlderit.  240,  4. 

Occupatio,  p.  373,  toot-note  2. 

Odor,  compar.,  166. 

Octo,  o  final  in,  581,  IV.,  2. 

Oc,  sound,  6 ;  12. 

Oedipus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  8,  N. 

O/endo,  constr.,  385,  it,  N.  1. 

fy*  interj.,  312,  3;  6  in,  577,  1.,  4;  e 
in,  581  'IV.,  4. 

Oi.  sound,  6, 1 ;  12, 1. 

-5is,  o  in,  587, 1.,  3  ;  577,  5,  N. 

-oius  in  prop,  names,  o  in,  577,  5, 
N. 

-ola,  o  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-olentus.  0  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

Oleo  w.  ace.,  371.  HI.,  N.  1. 

Ollug,  olle,  for  ille,  p.  73,  foot-note  1, 


(2). 
Blum, 


olum,    olus.  o  in,  587,  II.,  3. 


Omission  of  consonants,  86 ;  of  ord  in 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 
Omnis,  gen.  of,  w.  possess! ves,  398,  3. 
-on,  -on,  suffixes,  320,  II. :  -on  in 

Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4.     Quant,  of 

increm.  of  nouns  in  -6n.  585,  II.,  5, 
_(2). 

pna.  o  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
-on€  in  patronymics,  322,  N. :  5  in, 

587, 1.,  3. 

Onero,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
-oni,  oin,  587,  I.,  8. 
Onomatopoeia,  637,  XL,  5. 
-onus,  6  in,  587, 1.,  5. 
Open  vowel,  3,  I.,  1. 
Opera,  operae,   132.     Operam  dd  w. 

subj.,  p.  274.  foot-note  2. 
Oplmus,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Oportet,  constr.,  502,  1 ;  537,  -1 
Opposing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Ops,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3 ;  133,  1. 
Optative  in  fut.  and  in  pres.  subj.,  p. 

117,  foot-note  4.   Optat.  subj.,  484, 1. 
Optimdtts,  decl.,  64,  2,  4). 
Optimum  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Opto,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Opus. '  work,'  decl.,  61.   Opits'  need,' 

detect.,  134;  constr.,  414,  IV.;  w. 

sup.,  547,  1.      Opus  est  w.   subi., 
^02,  1. 
-or,  -5r,  suffixes,  320,  II.    Nouns  in 

-w,  327.     0  shortened  in  -or,  21,  2, 

2).     Gen.  of  nouns  in  -or,  99,  101. 

-Or  in  Plautus  for -or,  580,  III.,  >i. 

2.    Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in 
_  -or,  585,  II.,  5,  (1). 
GRATIS    OBLIQUA,  see  iiidi/rect  Dis- 
course.   Oratio  rgcta,  522, 1. 
Orbis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
Orbo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Ordinal  numbers,  172;  174;  decl.,  179. 
prius.  din,  587,  III.?  1. 
Or  no,  constr.,  p.  225,  toot-note  3. 
Oro  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2  ;  w  subj.,  p. 

274.  foot-note  1.      Oro  omitted  m 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 
Orpheus,  decl.,  68. 
Orthography,  1,1.,  2  ff. 
Ortusvf.  abl.,  415,  II. 
-orus,  compar.   of  aajs.  in,   169,  8. 
_  (5  in  -orus,  587,  I.,  6. 
Os,  quant,  ot  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 
Os,  ossis,  decl. ,  p.  38,  foot-note  4 ;  o 

in,  579,  3. 
-OS,  suffix,  320,  II.      Sound  of  -6s, 

11,  1.     Greek  neuters  in  -os,  68,  6. 

Decl.   of  nouns  in  -6s,  -os,  83 ;  133, 

4,  N. :   crend.,  99 ;   102.      Os  or  ot 

final,  5bO,  III.;  581,  VII. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Ossua,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 
Ostrea,  plur.,  142. 

osus.  ad]s.  in,  328 ;  6  in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-otis,  0  iii,  587,  I.,  3. 

otus,  6  in.  587,  I.,  7. 
Ovid,  versification,  630. 
OwingL  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  1. 
-OX,  -ox,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  96. 
Oxymoron,  637,  XL,  5. 


P  changed  to  b,  33,  2 ;  to  TO,  33,  8,  N. ; 
developed  by  m,  34,  1,  N. 

Paene  w.  pen.  ind.,  471,  2;  w.  hist, 
tenses  of  indie.,  511,  1,  N.  4. 

Paenitet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Palam  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Palatals,  3,  II.,  N.  1, 1.,  1. 

Pulu*  forpalus,  581,  IX.,  1.  N. 

Palteter,  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Panthus,  voc.,  54,  N.  4. 

Papae,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Par,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and 
3;  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (1.). 

Paraleipsis,  637,  XL,  2. 

Parasitic  «,  5,  4. 

Pardoning,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Parens,  gen.  plur.,  p.  38,  foot-note  2. 

Parentage  expressed  by  abl..  415. 

Parenthetical  clauses  in  inoir.  disc., 
524,  2,  1) ;  inindir.  clauses,  529,  II., 
N.  1,  2). 

Paries,  esin,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Paris,  decl.,  68. 

Paroemiac  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Paronomasia,  637,  XL,  7. 

Pars,  ace.,  64,  N.  2.  Pars,parte«,  132. 
/frr«  in  fractions,  174,  V  .Aw&, 
partibus,  constr.,  425,  2.  /t/rs  w. 
plur.  verb,  461,  1. 

Particeps  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Participation,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I., 
3 ;  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  8. 

PARTICIPLES,  200,  IV. ;  endings,  248. 
Particip.  in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Agreement  of  particip.,  438, 1 ;  460, 
1.  Particip.  for  innn.,  535,  I.,  4. 
Use  of  particip.,  548  ft. ;  denoting 
time,  cause,  manner,  means,  549,  1 ; 
oondit.,  concess.,  549,  2;  purpose, 
549,  3 :  for  relat.  clause,  549,  4 ;  for 
prin.  clausCj  549,  5 ;  w.  negat.,  549, 
N.  1.  Particip.  rendered  by  noun, 
549,  N.  2. 

PARTICLES,  302  ff  ;  adverbs,  303  ff. ; 
preps.,  307;  308;  conjs.,  309  ff . ; 
interjections,  312.  Syntax  of  parti- 
cles,' 551  tf. ;  adverbs,  551  ff.  In- 


terrog.  particles,  p.  152,  foot-note  3 ; 
351,  1 ;  555, 8.  -Jin  particles,  581, 
III.,  3. 

Partim,  304,  I.,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209, 
foot-note  3.  Partim — parfom  for 
pars—pars,  461,  5. 

Partitive  apposition,  364.  Part,  gen., 
396,  IV. ;  397. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Partus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 

Parum  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Parvus,  compar.,  165.  Parvl,  constr., 
p.  213.  foot-note  2. 

Passer,  decl.,  60. 

PASSIVE  VOICE,  195,  II. ;  impers.,  195, 
II.,  1.  Passive  constr.,  464;  534, 
1.  Passive  like  middle,  465. 

Passus,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Pastor,  pater,  decl.,  60. 

Paterfamilias,  decl.,  126. 

Patior,  constr..  p.  310,  N.  1. 

Patrials,  331,  N.  1 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  II.,  5. 

Patronymics,  322. 

Pauti,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Pause,  caesural,  602. 

Pax,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Pecu,  decl.,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

PECULIARITIES,  in  conjugal.,  235  ff. ; 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  495 ;  in  expressions 
of  purppsBj  499  ;  of  result,  502.  Pe- 
culiarities in  Rom.  calendar,  64? 

Pecus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Pedester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Pelagus,  decl.,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Penalty,  how  expressed,  410,  III. 

Penatis,  decl.,  64,  2,4). 

Penes  w.  ace.,  433;  es  in,  581,  VI.,  2. 

Peninsulas,  constr.  of  names  of,  380 
II.,  2,  2). 

Pentameter,  603,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  614. 

Penthemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Penthemimeris,  597,  N.  2. 

Penus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Per  in  compds.,  170,  1;  344,  5;  w. 
ace.,  872.  Per  w.  ace.,  433  ;  433, 1. ; 
denoting  agency,  415,  I.,  1,  N .  1 ; 
manner.  419,  III.,  N.  3.  Per  si,  452, 
1,  N.  Position  nfper  in  adjura- 
tions, 569,  II.,  3.  K  in  per,  579,  3. 

Perceiving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I. 

Percontor  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

PERFECT  TENSE,  197  ;  198.  Perl',  sys- 
tem, 222,  II.  Perfect  stems,  252  ff. 
Perf.  wanting,  262,  N.  2  :  272,  N.  2 ; 
282;  284,  N.  2.  Perf.  w.  prc*. 
meaning,  297,  I.,  2.  Syntax  of  pert, 
indie.,  471 ;  subj.,  481  ;  in  sub],  of 


414 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


desire,  483,  2 ;  in  potent,  subj.,  485, 
N.  1 ;  in  prohibitions,  489,  3).  Perl: 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  492 ;  493 ;  495 ; 
496,  n.  Perf.  in  condition,  507, 
II. ;  509;  511,  1 ;  511,  2,  N. ;  513, 
N.  1. ;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  2 :  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1 ;  520,  N.  1 ; 
in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 :  527,  II. ;  527, 
III.,  N.  2.  Perf.  infin.,  537.  Perf. 
particip.,  550;  rendered  by  verbal 
noun,  549, 3,  N.  2.  -Is  in  perf.  subj . , 
581,  VIII.,  5.  Quant,  of  pen.  of 
dissyllabic  perfects,  590.  Quant,  of 
first  two  syllables  of  trisyllabic  re- 
duplicated perfects,  591. 

Perh^beor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Pericles,  decl.,  68. 

Periculum  eat  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Period,  Lat.,  573.  Periods  of  Lat. 
literature,  640. 

Periphrastic  conjugat.,  233 ;  234;  use, 
466,  N.:  p.  261,  foot-note  4  ;  476, 1 ; 
in  condit.  sentences,  511,  2.  Peri- 
phrast.  fut.  infin.,  537,  3. 

Peritua  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  toot-note  3. 

PermiseeO  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Pemiciosus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Person  of  nouns,  44 ;  verbs,  199 ;  in 
indir.  disc.,  526. 

PERSONAL  pron. ,  183, 1 ;  184:  use,  446 ; 
reflexive  use,  448 ;  449.  Pers.  end- 
ings of  verbs,  247.  Pers.  constr.  in 
indir.  questions,  529,  6;  in  pass, 
voice,  534.  1. 

Personification,  637,  IX. 

Persuading,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885,  II. 

Pertoedet,  pertoeaum  eat,  constr.,  410, 
IV.,  notes  1  and  3. 

Pea,  is  in  compds.,  581,  VI..  1.  Pes 
as  unit  of  measure,  648,  IV. 

Petd,  constr.,  374,  2,  N.  4. 

Phalaecian  verse,  629, 1. 

Pherecratic  verse,  628,  n.  and  IV.-VI. 

Phocais,  a  in,  p.  845,  foot-note  1. 

PHONETIC  CHANGES,  19  ff.  Phonet. 
decay,  p.  12,  toot-note  1. 

Phryx,  decl.,  68. 

Phy,  312,  4. 

Piget,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Ptfo,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  8. 

Pix  wants  gen.  plur.,  133,  5 ;  w.  short 
increm..  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 

PLACE,  adverbs  of,  305,  I.,  II.,  and 
HI. ;  305,  N.  2,  1).  Endings  of 
designations  of  place,  323.  Constr. 
w.  verbs  meaning  to  place,  380.  N. 
Place  whither.  380;  where,  dat., 
886,  4,  4);  abl.,  425;  locat,  425, 


II. ;  426  ;  whence,  412.  Adis.  01 
place  for  Eng.  adverbs,  443,  N.  2. 

Pwutus,  quantity  of  syllables  in,  578, 
N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  2-4;  metres, 
633,  III. 

Pleasing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Pleblcula,  formation,  p.  159,  foot- 
note 1. 

Plebs,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Plenty,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V. ; 
421,  II. ;  421,  N.  1 ;  w.  adjs.  of, 
421,  II. 

PUnus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Pleonasm,  636,  III. 

PLUPERFECT,  197;  222,  II.  Plup. 
indic.j  472 ;  476,  2 ;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  2 ; 
521t  II.,  1.  Plup.  subj.,  482;  in 
subj.  or  desire,  483,  2;  in  seq.  of 
tenses,  493;  495,  I.;  496,  II.,  (2); 
in  condit..  507,  III.;  509,  N.  3; 
510 ;  513,  W.  1 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II.. 
3  ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 1 ;  519,  2, 
N.  1 ;  520,  II. ;  521.  II.,  2;  in  indir. 
disc.,  527,  2  ;  527,  II.  and  III. ;  527, 
N.  2. 

PLURAL,  44 ;  wanting,  130.  Plur. 
for  sing.,  130,  3  ;  446,  N.  2.  Plur. 
w.  change  of  meaning,  132.  -E  in 
Greek  plur.,  581,  III.,  1.  -Is  in 
plur.,  581,  YIII.,1. 

Pturiml,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3 ;  gen. 
of  price,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Plus,  165,  N.  1 ;  without  quam,  417, 
1,  N.  2.  Pluris,  constr.,  p.  213, 
foot-note  2 ;  405.  Quant,  of  increm. 
of  plue,  585,  V.,  2. 

Poetical  dat.,  380,  4 ;  385,  4;  388,  4. 

Pollux,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Polypus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Polysyndeton,  636,  III..  1 

PondO,  648,  I. 

Ponevr.  ace.,  433. 

POnO,  constr.,  380,  N.  O  in  poifu\ 
positum,  592,  2. 

Por,  insep.  prep.,  308.  Por  for  port, 
344,  6. 

Porticus.  gend.,  118,  (1). 

Portua,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

PoscO  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Position,  syllables  when  long  by,  p. 
338,  foot-note  3. 

Positive,  160 ;  wanting,  166.  Pos.  foi 
compar.,  444,  2,  N.  3. 

POSSESSIVE  pronouns,  185 ;  w.  gen., 
363,  4, 1) ;  398,  3 ;  for  gen..  396,  II., 
N. ;  401,  N.  3 ;  w  :-efert  and  interest, 
408, 1.,  2.  Use  of  poss.  pron.,  447 ; 
reflex,  448 ;  449.  Possessive  compds., 
843,  III.  Possessive  gen.,  396, 1. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


415 


Possessor,  dat.  of,  387. 

Possum,  in  couclus.,  511,  1,  N.  2;  w. 
pres.  infin.,  537, 1. 

Post  in  compos.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Post,  denoting  interval  of  time,  430. 
Post  w.  ace.,  433;  433,  I. 

Post-classical  -period,  640,  III. 

Posted,  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  in  series,  554, 
L,  N.  4. 

Postedquam,  811, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
518. 

Posterus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Postlcus.  l  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Pottos,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Postmodum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Postpositive,  554,  III.,  4;  554,  V.,  3. 

Postquam  in  temp,  clauses,  518;  w. 
pcrf.  indie.,  p.  260,  foot-note  2. 

Postrwno  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 

Postrlmus,  force  of,  440,  N.  "2 ;  442,  N. 

Postridie  w.  gen.,  398t  5 ;  w.  ace.,  437, 
1.  PostrwM  quam  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  3.  E  in  postrldw,  p.  341, 
foot-note  2. 

PbstuU,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Potlns  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Potential  subj.,  485 ;  486 ;  in  declar. 
sentences,  486,  I. ;  in  interrog.  sen- 
tences, 486,  II. ;  in  subord.  clauses, 
486,  III. 

Potior  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3;  w  nbl., 
421,  I. ;  w.  ace.,  421,  N.  in 
gerund,  constr.,  544,  N.  5. 

Potus  w.  act.  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Prae  in  compds.,  170, 1 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Prae  w.  abl.,  434;  434,  I.  Quant. 
ofprae  in  compds.,  576, 1.,  1 ;  594, 4. 

Praecipid,  constr..  j>.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Praecox,  quant,  or  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

I*raecurro,  constr.,  p.  202, foot-note  1. 

Praeditw,  constr.,  420,  N.  1,  4). 

Praenomen,  649;  abbreviated,  649,1. 

Praesente  w.  plur.,  438,  6,  N. 

Praeslo,  praestolor,  constr.,  p.  202, 
foot-note  1. 

I'raeter  in  compds.  w.  ace.,  372.  Prae- 
terw.  ace.,  433;  433,  I. 

Praetered  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Praeut,  311,  2. 

PREDICATE,  356,  2  ;  simple,  360 ;  com- 
plex, 361 ;  modified,  361,  1.  Prcd. 
nouns,  360,  N.  1;  362;  for  dat., 
390,  N.  2.  Pred.  ad.js.,  3fiO,  N.  1 ; 
438,  2.  Pred.  ace., '373,  1.  Pred. 
gen.,  401  ff. ;  varieties,  402:  verbs 
with,  403  ff. ;  pred.  gen.  of  price, 
404:  405.  Pred.  abl.,  421.  N. 
4.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2.  Infin. 
as  pred.,  539,  I.  Predicates  com- 


pared, 535, 1.,  6.    Position  of  pred.. 

560. 

Predicative  roots,  314,  I. 
PREPOSITIONS,  307;   msep.,   308;   in 

compds.,  344,  5  and   6.     Compds. 

w.  ace.,  372 ;  w.  two  aces.,  376 ;  w. 

dat.,  386.    Preps,  in  expressions  of 

time,  379,  1;  429,  1  and  2;  430; 

of  place,  380 ;  412 ;  425 ;  of  motion 

or  direction,  384,  3,  1) ;   denoting 


III..  N.  1 ;  for  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N. 
3 ;  for  gen.  w.  adjs. ,  400,  2  and  3 ; 
for  gen.  after  verbs,  407,  N.  2 ;  410, 
I.,  2 ;  410,  II.,  3 ;  after  rjfert  and  in- 
terest, 408,  I.,  3 ;  408,  IV. ;  express- 
ing penalty,  410,  III. ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ;  414,  N.  1. ;  415 ; 
416, 1. ;  alter  compar.,  417,  notes  3 
and  5 ;  denoting  accompaniment, 
419,  I. ;  manner,  419,  III.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  ff. ;  ace.,  433;  abl., 
434;  ace.  or  abl.,  435.  Special  uses 
of  preps.,  433,  I.  j  434,  I.  ;  435, 

I.  Preps,  originally  adverbs,  436. 
Adverbs  as  preps.,  487.    Preps  w. 
infin.,  533,  3,  N.  4;  w.  ger.,  542, 
III.;    542,   IV.,    (2);  w.    gerund, 
constr.,  544,  2.     Prep,  between  adj. 
and    noun,    565,    8.      Position    ot 
preps.,  569,  II.     Quant,  of  insep. 
preps.,  594,  2.    Monosyllabic  preps, 
repeated,  636,  III.,  6;  other  preps., 
636,  III.,  6,  N. 

Presbyter,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

PRESENT,  197;  198,  I.,  1;  222.  I. 
Pres.  stem,  250;  251.  Pres.  indie., 
466  ;  467  ;  of  gen.  truths,  customs, 
467,  II.  Hist,  pres.,  467,  III.;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1.  Pres. 
subj.,  479:  in  condit.,  507,  II.; 
509;  513,  N.  1 ;  in  concess.,  615, 
II.,  2 :  in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 ;  527, 

II.  Pres.  imperat.,  487t  1.     Pres. 
infln.,  537.      Pres.   particip.,    550. 
Pres.  perf.,  197,  N.  1 ;  198,  I.,  2 : 
471,  I.    Pres.  system.  222,  1.    -It 
in  pres.  subj.,  581,  VI 11.,  4. 

Priapeian  verse,  629,  II. 

Price,  gen.  of,  404;  405  ;  abl.,  422. 

Pridte,  locat.,  120,  N. ;  w.  gen.,  898, 

5;   w.   ace.,  437,  1.     J'rldie  quam 

in  temp,  clauses,  520,  N.  2.     E  in 

pridie,  p.  241,  foot-note  2. 
Pnmary    stems,    315;    317.      Prim. 

suffixes,  p.  153?  foot-note  6  ;  320. 
Primum,primd,  in  series.  564, 1.,  N.  2. 
Princeps,  decl.,  57. 


416 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


PRINCIPAL  parts  of  verbs,  202 ;  220 ; 
267-288.  Prin.  clauses,  348,  N. 
2;  in  indir.  disc.,  523;  supplied 
by  parti cip.,  549,  5.  Prin.  tenses, 
198,  I. ;  in  seq.,  491  ff.  Prin.  ele- 
ments of  sentence,  357, 1. 

Prior,  primus,  166  ;  rendered  by  relat. 
clause,  442,  N. ;  by  adverb,  443,  N. 
1,  (2). 

Priusquam,  811, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
520. 

Privo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Pro,  312,  3;  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Pro,  prod,  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  pro  in, 
594,  5.  Compds.  w.  dat.,  386.  Prd 
w.  abl.,434 ;  434, 1. :  expressing  in 
defence  of,  in  behalf  of,  384,  3,  2). 
Prd  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Proceleusmatics,  633,  III.,  2,  N.  1. 

Proclitics,  18, 1,  N.  1. 

Prodlvis  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Procul  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Prod  in  compos.,  344,  5. 

Prohibed,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Prohibisso  for  prohibuero,  240,  4. 

Prohibitions,  subj.  in,  484,  IV.,  w. 
N.  1;  imperat.,  487,  2,  2). 

Proinde,  310,  4. 

Prolepsis,  440,  2;  636.  IV.,  3. 

Pronominal  roots,  314,  II. 

PBONOUNS,  182  ff. ;  pers.,  183, 1 ;  184 ; 
substant.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3;  case- 
endings,  184,  1;  possess.,  185;  de- 
mon., 186;  relat.,  187;  interrog., 
188;  indef.,  189;  190;  correlat., 
191.  Prons.  as  adjs. ,  438, 1 .  Agree- 
ment of  pron.,  445.  Use  of  pers. 
pron.,  446  ;  possess.,  447  ff. ;  reflex., 
448;  449;  demon.,  450  ff . ;  relat, 
453;  interrog.,  454;  indef.,  455  ff. 
Pron.  in  indir.  disc.,  526.  Prons. 
brought  together,  569,  I.,  2.  Pron. 
redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  Roman,  5  ff. ; 
Eng.,  9  ff. ;  Continental,  15. 

Prope  w.  ace.,  433;  433,  I. ;  w.  perf. 
indie.,  471,  2;  w.  hist,  tenses  of  in- 
die., 511, 1,  N.  4. 

Proper  nouns,  39, 1 ;  plur.  of,  130,  2. 

Propinquus  without  superlat.,  168,3; 
constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and  3. 

Propior,  proximus,  166;  w.  ace.,  391, 
2;  433,  I.,  N.  2;  w.  force  of  Eng. 
adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Propius  w.  ace.,  437,  1 ;  433,  I.,  N.  2. 

Proportionals,  173,  2. 

Proprius,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 
and  3. 

f+opter  w.  ace..  433  ;  488,  I. 


Propterea,  554,  IV.,  2. 

PROSODY,  574  ff. ;  quant.,  575  ff  • 
versification,  596  ff. ;  figures  of  pros  , 
608. 

Prosopopeia.  637,  IX. 

Prosper ,  dec!.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Prdsjcncw,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Protinus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Prout,  311,  2. 

Provided,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Providus,  compar.,  164;  w.  gen.,  p. 
210,  foot-note  3. 

Proxime  w.  ace.,  433,  I.,  N.  2 ;  437,  1 

Prdximm,  see  Propior. 

Prudens,  decl.,  157;  w.  gen.,  p.  210, 
foot-note  3 ;  w.  force  of  Eng.  ad- 
verb, 443,  N.  1,  (1). 

-pte,  pronouns  in,  185,  N.  2. 

Pudet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Pudwus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Puer,  deel.,  51. 

Pugnd  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Puppis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

PURPOSE,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  3);  subj.  of, 
497  ft'. ;  object  clauses,  498 ;  peculi- 
arities, 499.  Infin.  of  purpose,  533, 
II.;  gerund,  542,  I.,  N.  2;  542, 
III.,  N.  2;  gerundive,  544,  2,  N. 
2;  supine.  546;  particip.,  549,  3. 
Position  or  clauses  of  purpose,  572, 
III.,  N. 

Pus,  defect.,  133,  N. 

-pUS.  compos,  in,  quant,  of  increm.. 
585,  II.,  5,  (3). 

Pitta,  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 

Putor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Pyrites,  decl.,  50. 

Pyrrhic,  597,  N.  1. 

Pythiambic  stanza,  631,  XVII.  and 
XVIII. 

Q 

Q,  qu,  dropped,  36,  3.     Qu  changed 

to  c,  33, 1,  N. 
Qua,  304,  II.,  3 ;  305,  V. 
Quaero,  constr.,  p.  193,  foot-note  1. 
QudUs,  qudliscumque,  187,  4.     Cujus- 

modi,  etc.,  for  qudlis,  187,  4,  N. 

Qudfis,  interrog.,  188,  4. 

§alisUoet,  191: 
dlisqudlis,  187,  4. 
ality,  abl.  of,  419,  II.,  w.  N. 
am,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  304,  I.,  4; 
305,  V. ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  311. 
2;  w.  comparat.,  417;  444,  2;  w. 
superlat.,  170,  2,  (2) ;  w.  infln.,  524, 
1,  2).     Quam  for  postquam,  430,  N. 
1,  8).     Quam  pro,  417,  1,  N.   5. 
Quam,  quam  ut,  w.  subj.,  502,  2 
Quam  qul    w.   subj.,   503,   II.,   &. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


41? 


Quam  n,  513,  II.  Tarn — quam, 
non  minus  —  quam,  ndn  magis — 
quam,  555,  II.,  1.  NiMl  aliud 
quam^  555,  III.,  1. 

QuamdiM,  311, 1. 

Quamobrem,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quamquam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 
4 ;  in  concess.,  515, 1. ;  515,  notes  1 
and  2 ;  w.  infin.,  524, 1,  2). 

Quamvis,  311, 4 ;  in  concess.,  615,  III.; 

515,  N.  3. 

Quandd,  interrog.,  305,  IV. ;  relat, 
311,  1  and  7;  in  causal  clauses, 

516.  Quandd  in  compds.,  594,  8. 
Quand&quidem,  311,  7  ;  6  in,  594.  8. 
QUANTITY,  16 ;  575  ff. :  signs  of,  16, 

N.  3 ;  gen.  rules,  576  ff.  Quant, 
in  final  syllables,  579  ff. ;  incre- 
ments, 582  ff. ;  deriv.  endings,  587  ; 
stem  -  syllables,  588  ff. ;  syllables 
before  two  consonants  or  a  double 
consonant,  651. 

QuantumUbet,  quantumvis,  311.  4. 
Quantumels  in  concess.,  515,  N.  6. 

Quantus,  relat.,  187, 4:  interrog.,  188, 
4;  correlat,  191.  Quanti,  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2 ;  405. 

Quantu»vis,  indef.,  191. 

Qudpropter,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quart,  304,  II.,  1,  N. ;  554,  IV.,  2;  e 
in,  p.  341,  foot-note  2. 

(Juan.  311,  2  ;  w.  quldam,  456,  2 ;  in 
condit.,  513,  II.  /in  quasi,  681,  I., 
1 ;  a  in,  594, 10. 

Quavis,  indef.,  305,  V. 

Que,  810, 1 ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  554, 
I.  Idem — que,  451,  5.  Que — que, 
et — que,  que — et,  que — atgue,  neque 
(nee) — que.  554,  I.,  5.  Position  of 
que,  569,  III.,  4.  Que  lengthened 
in  Vergil,  608.  V.,  N.  2. 

Quercus,  decl.,  119,  4. 

Queror  w.  infln.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Questioning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374, 
N.  3. 

QUESTIONS,  351 ;  double,  353 ;  delibe- 
rat.  in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.,  1,  N. ; 
rhetor.,  p.  297,  foot-note  2;  indir., 
528,  2  ;  529,  I. 

Qul,  relat.  pron..  187  ;  453 ;  interrog., 
188;  454;  indef.,  189;  190;  455; 
correlat.,  191.  Qul  w.  subj* of  pur- 
pose,,497,  1. ;  of  result,  500,  I. :  503. 
Qul  in  condit.,  507, 2 ;  concess.,  515, 
III. ;  515,  N.  4  ;  causal  clauses,  517. 
Qul  dlcitur,  vocdtur,  453,  7.  Quod 
as  adverb,  ace.,  453,  6.  Quod  in 
restrict,  clauses,  503,  N.  1.  /  in  ' 
<rui,  681,  I.,  1. 

Qul,  adverb,  187,  1  ;  188,  2. 


Quia,  311,  7 ;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3.  2);  w.  infln.,  524, 

1,  2).    A  in  qum,  581,  III.,  3. 
Quicumque,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3. 
Quidam,  indef.,  190,  2,  1) ;  191 ;  use, 

456. 
Quidem  w.  pron.,  446,  N.  1 ;  position, 

569,111.;  569,  III.,  3. 
Quies,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Quihbet.  gen.  indef.,  190,  2,  2);  use. 

458. 
Quln.  p.  75,  foot-note  2;  811,  6;  w. 

subj.,  500,  II. ;  501,  II.,  2;  504. 
Qulnam,  188,  3. 
Quinarius,  646. 
Quinqudtrus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 
Qulmpe.  p.  75,  foot-note  2;  w.  relat., 

517,  3, 1). 

Quiritj  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Quis,  interrog.,  188;  use,  454;  indef., 

189;  190;  use,  455;  correlat,  191. 

/  in  quis,  579.  3.    A  in  qua,  in- 
def., 579,  3.     Quid  redundant,  636, 

III.,  7. 

Quls  for  quibus,  p.  74,  foot-note  5. 
Quitnam,  188,  3. 

Quispiam,  indef.,  190,  2,  1^  ;  use,  455. 
Quisquam,  indef.,  190,  2, 1) ;  use,  467. 
Quisque,  gen.  indef.,  190,  2.  2) ;  use, 

458;   w.   abl.   abs.,  431,  N.  3;  w. 

plur.  verb,    461,    3.      Placed  next 

suus  or  gui,  569,  I.,  2. 
Quisquis,  gen.  relat.,  187,  8.     Quid- 
quid  used  of  persons,  453,  1,  N. 
Quitum,  i  in,  590,  1. 
Qulvis,  gen.  indef.,  190,  2.  2);  use, 

458;  win,  581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 
Quo,  804,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  II. ;  311,  6; 

w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3; 

w.  subj.  ofpurpo.se,  497,  II. 
Quoad,  311,  1 ;  w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209, 

foot-note  3 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Qw&circd,  554,  IV.,  2. 
Quocumque,  805,  N.  1. 
Quod,  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  311,  7;  in 

causal  clauses,  516. 
Quod-c\&un<is.  540,  IV.,  w.  N.     Niri 

quod,  555,  III.,  1.    See  also  Qul. 
Quoi  for  cui,  quoius  for  cfyus,  \>.  74, 

foot-note  5. 
QuoMbet,Z05,  II. 
Quom,  305,  IV. ;  p.  151,  foot-notes  1 

and  4;  311, 1,  4,  and  7. 
Quominue,  311,  5  ;  w.  subj.,  497,  II. ; 

499,  3,  N.  2. 
Quoniam,  composition,  p.  6,  foot-note 

5;  311,  7;   m  causal  clauses,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3,  2). 
Quoque.  310,  1;  554,  I.,  4;  position, 

569,  ITI.;  o  in,  594,  10. 


418 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Quoqud,  305,  N.  1. 
Qudrmim,  305,  II. 
Quot,  relat.,  187,  4;  interrog.,  188,  4; 

correlat.,  191. 
Quotannis,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 
Quotient,  305,  IV. 

Quotus,  relat. ,  187, 4 ;  interrog. ,  188, 4. 
QvMt,  805,  II. 
Quum,  305,  IV. ;  see  Cum. 

R 

R  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2 ;  dropped,  36, 
3,  N.  3.  Noun-stems  in  r,  60 ;  verb- 
stems  in  supine,  256,  1.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  r,  77.  Quant,  of  final  syl- 
lables jn  r,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  2. 

-ra,  -rft,  suffixes,  320. 

Radix,  decl.,  59. 

Rostrum^  plur.,  143,  2. 

Ratio,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 

Ration,  a  in,  590, 1. 

Rdvis,  decl.,  62,  II.,  1. 

Re,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,  6 :«  ill,  594,  2.  Re  for  re.  594, 
2,  N.  3. 

-re  for  ris.  237. 

Reading,  rhythmical,  607. 

Rea/pse,  p.  73,  foot-note  5. 

Reason,  clauses  expressing,  516. 

Recollection,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I., 
2;  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Recorder  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace., 
407,  N.  1,  (1) ;  w.  abl.  w.  de,  407, 
N.  2. 

Recited,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 

Red,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,  6. 

Reduplicated  pronouns,  184,  4 ;  per- 
fects. 255,  I.  Quant,  of  first  two 
syllables  of  trisyllabic  reduplicated 
perfects,  591.  Increm.  of  redupli- 
cated forms  of  verbs,  586,  2. 

Reduplication  in  pres.,  251,  6;  peri'., 
255,  I. ;  compds.,  255,  I.,  4. 

Refert,  constr.,  406,  III. ;  408. 

Refertm  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Reflexive  pron.,  184,  2.  Reflex,  use 
of  pron.,448;  449. 

Refusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 

Regarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373 ; 
w.  two  oats.,  390,  N.  1,  2) ;  w.  gen., 
403. 

Regno  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

RELATIVE  PRONOUN,  187  :  correlat., 
191;  use,  453.  Abl.  of  relat.  for 
postquam,  430,  N.  2.  Relat.  at- 
tracted, 445,  8.  Relat.  clause  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483, 5  •,  purpose,  497, 


I. ;  result.  500,  I. ;  503 ;  to  charao- 
terize  indef.  or  gen.  anteced.,  503, 
I. ;  after  units,  sol/us,  etc.,  503,  II., 
1 ;  after  dignus,  indiqnus,  idoneiis, 
aptus,  503,  II.,  2;  after  comparat. 
w.  quam,  503,  II.,  3.  Relat.  clause 
in  condit.,  507,  2;  concess.,  515, 

111.,  w.  N.  4;   causal  clause,  517. 
Relat.  clause  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,1); 
supplied  by  particip.,  549,  4.    Posi- 
tion of  relat..  569,  III. ;  before  prep., 
569,  II.,  1.  Position  of  relat.  clauses, 
572,  II.,  N. 

Relaxo,  relevo,  w.  abl.,  p.  219,  foot- 
note 1. 

Relieving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  1. 

ReUnquo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Reliquus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2.  Rfli- 
quifacere,  401,  N.  4. 

Remaining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
I.,  1. 

Remembering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Reminding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
I. ;  410,  I. 

ReminZscor  w.  gen. ,  406,  II. 

Repeated  action  denoted  by  imperf. 
indie.,  469,  II. ;  plup.  indie.,  518, 
N.  2,  2);  impen.  or  plup.  subj., 

518. 1. 

Repelling,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 
Repentinus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 
ReposcO  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 
Requifs,  decl..  137,  1;  quant,  of  in- 

crem.,  585,  III.,  8. 
Res,  decl.,  120;  w.  adjs.,  440,  N.  4. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  636,  III.,  10. 
Resisting,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885, 1. 
Respubhca,  decl.,  126. 
Restat  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Restis,  decl.,  62,  III. 
Restrictive  clauses  w.  quod,  503,  N.  1. 
RESULT,  subj.   of,  500  ff. ;  substant. 

clauses  of,  501 ;  peculiarities,  502 ; 

in  relat.  clauses,  503 ;  vf.gitin,  504 ; 

w.  special  verbs,  505.    Position  of 

clauses  of  result,  572,  III.,  N. 
Rete,  decl.,  63,  2,  (2). 
Reticentia,  636,  I.,  3 ;  637,  XL,  3. 
.Sex.  decl.,  59;  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 

m.,  3. 

Rhea,  e  in,  577, 1.,  2,  (3). 
Rhetoric,  figures  of,  634,  N. ;  637. 
Rhetorical  questions,  523,  II.,  2. 
Rhythm,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Rhythmic  accent,  599. 
Rhythmical  reading,  607. 
RULeo  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 
Rivers,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  I.,  2; 

43   1. 
-PO,' suffix,  320,  II. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


419 


Rogo  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2;  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Roma,  decl.,  48,  4. 

Roman  pronunciation  of  Lat.,  5  S. 
Roman  authors,  640.  Roman  calen- 
dar, 641  ff.  ;  money,  weights,  and 
measures,  646  ff. ;  names,  649. 

Roots,  314.    Root-stems,  315. 

Kos  without  gen.  plur.,  133,  5. 

Rostrum,  rostra,  132. 

-rs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3,  (1) ;  90. 

Rudis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Rules  of  syntax,  558. 

Rus,  decl.,  64,  N.  3  ;  133,  N. ;  constr., 
380,  2,  1).  Rure,  412,  1.  Run, 
426,  2. 

-rus,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  3. 

Rutum,  quant,  of  pen.,  590,  1. 


S,  sound,  7 ;  13,  II. ;  changed  to  r, 
31 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ;  36,  5;  1). 
Stems  in  «,  61.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  s, 
64;  65,3;  79  ff.;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  2;  585,  IJ.,  2.  Final  sylla- 
bles in  «  short  before  following  con- 
sonant, 576, 1,  N.  2.  Final s  dropped 
in  poetry,  608, 1.,  N.  3. 

-8,  patronymics  in,  322. 

-88,,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Sacer,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  gen.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  8. 

Saepe.  compar.,  806,  4. 

Sal,  decl.,  183,  5.  Sal,  sates,  132.  I 
in  sal,  579,  2 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  4,  (8). 

SaUx  w.  short  increm.,  p.  848,  foot- 
note 2. 

Saluber,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Salutdris  without  superlat.,  168,  3 ; 
w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Samnis,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Sane  quam  as  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Sapio  w.  ace.,  371,  III..  N.  1. 

Sapphic  verse,  604;  N.  1 ;  628,  VI. 
and  VII.  Sapphic  stanza,  681,  II. 
and  III. 

Satis,  compar.,  806,  4 ;  w.  part,  gen., 
p.  209,  foot-note  3 ;  compos,  w.  oat., 
884,  4,  N.  1. 

Saturn,  a  in,  590,  1. 

Satur,  decl.,  150,  N.,  2). 

Saying,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  684,  1,  N. 
1,  (2). 

Scanning,  607,  N. 

Scazon,  p.  361,  foot-note  1. 

Scelw  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Scidi,  i  in,  590,  1. 


Sdins  w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443, 
N.  1,  (1). 

Scilicet,  304,  IV.  t  N.  2. 

-sc5,  inceptives  in,  337. 

Se,  insep.  prep.,  308  ;  in  compds.,  344, 
6 ;  l  in,  594,  2. 

Second  decl.,  51  ff.  Sec.  conj.,  207; 
208 ;  225 ;  261  ff. ;  e  in  imperat.,  581, 
IV.,  3.  Sec.  pers.  sing,  of  indef. 
you,  484,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Secondary  tenses,  198,  II.  Secondary 
stems,  315;  318.  Second,  suffixes, 
p.  154,  foot-note  4. 

Secundum  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433,  I. 

Securis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Secus.  'sex,'  defect.,  134.  Secus, 
'  otherwise,'  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Sed  for  se,  184,  5.  Sed,  insep.  prep., 
808 ;  in  compds,  344,  6. 

Sed,  310,  3  ;  554,  III.,  2.  Non  solum 
(non  modo  or  n6n  tantum) — sed 
etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Sed,  sed  to/men, 
resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3.  Position 
of  sed  in  poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 

Sides,  gen.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Sedtamen,  554,  111.,  3. 

Seeming,  pred.  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  403. 

Selling,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 

Semel,  p.  145,  foot-note  4. 

Sementw,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Semi-deponents,  268,  8 ;  283 ;  465, 
N.  2. 

Seminex,  defect.,  159.  II. 

Semi- vowels,  3,  II.,  1. 

Senarius,  603,  N.  6 ;  622. 

Sendtus,  decl.,  119,  8. 

Sending,  two  data.  w.  verbs  of,  890, 
N.  1,  2). 

Seneca,  metres,  633,  II.,  notes  2  and  3. 

Senex,  decl.,  66  ;  compar..  168,  4. 

SENTENCES,  syntax,  345  ff. ;  classifica- 
tion, 345  ff.  ;  simple,  347  ;  357  ; 
complex,  348 ;  359 ;  compound,  84!) ; 
declarat.,  350;  in  indir.  disc.,  623, 
I. ;  imperat.,  354.  See  also  Exclama- 
tory, Interrogative,  Conditional. 

SEPARATION,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885,  4. 
2).  Abl.  of  separat.,  413  ;  414. 
Separat.  producing  emphasis,  661, 

Styse  for  se,  184,  5. 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES,  491  ff. ;  pecu- 

liarities,  495. 

Sequitur  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Series,  how  begun  and  continued,  654| 

I..  N.  2. 

Series,  defect.,  122,  2. 
Serving,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885,  I 
Servus,  decl.,  51. 
Sescenti  used  indefinitely,  174,  4, 


420 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Sese  for  «g,  184,  4. 

Sesterces,  647. 

SSstertium,  sBstertium,  647,  III.  and 
IV. 

Sestertius,  646  j  647. 

Setius.  quo  sefaus  for  quOminus,  497, 
2,  N. 

&w,  310,  2. 

Ships,  gend.  of  names  of,  63, 1,  (2). 

Short  syllables,  575. 

Shortening  of  vowels,  21. 

Showing,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  373. 

Si,  derivat.  and  meaning,  p.  73,  foot- 
note 2:  311,  3;  p.  281,  foot-note  2; 
in  condit.,  507  ff. ;  w.  perf.  indie., 
471 1  5 ;  w.  plup.  indie.,  472;  2 ;  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  Si  in  con- 
cess.,  515,  II.  Sl  =  to  see  whether, 
529,  L  N.  1.  Si  quidem,  507, 3,  N.  2. 

-Si,  suffix,  320,  II.  -Si  in  Greek  dats. , 
68,  5;  a  in,  581, 1..  1. 

Sic,  p.  73,  foot-note  2;  804,  III.,  2; 
805,  V.;  551,  N.  2,-  redundant, 
636,  in.,  7. 

6Kcwtf,  *£c«^,  311,  2. 

Siem  for  «w»,  204,  2. 

-sills,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Silver  age,  640,  II.,  2. 

Silvester,  dec!.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

-sim  in  perf.  sub].,  240,  4;  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  L,  1. 
sima,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simile,  637, 1. 

Simifas,  compar.,  168,  2 ;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  gen.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  3. 

-simo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simple  sentence,  347 ;  357.  Simp,  ele- 
ments, 357,  2;  subject,  358;  pred., 
860.  Simple  words,  313,  N.  2. 

Simul,  p.  145,  foot-note  4 ;  311,  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  437,  2.  Simul  atque,  dc  in 
temp,  clauses,  518  ;  w.  perf.  indie., 
471,  4. 

Simuldc,  simulatque,  311, 1 ;  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ;  w.  perf.  indie.,  471,  4. 

Sin.  311,  3 ;  in  condit.,  507  ff. ;  p. 
282.  foot-note  1.  Sin  attter,  552,  3. 

-Sin  in  Greek  dat.  plur.,  68,  5. 

Sine  w.  abl.,  434. 

Singular,  44 ;  wanting,  131. 

Simstra,  constr.,  425,  2. 

SinO,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  /in 
situm,  590,  1. 

Siquidem,  311, 7  ;  507,  3,  N.  2 ;  quant, 
of  first  syllab.,  594,  10. 

Sitid  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sitis,  decl.,  62,  II.  ,1. 

Sive,  310,  2;  554,  II.,  3. 

Size,  gen.  of,  419,  2, 1). 


Skill,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  2;  gen 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Smell,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

-SO,  suffix,  320,  II.  SO  in  fut.  perf.. 
240,  4. 

Socer,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Socio  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Sol,  decl.,  60  ;  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  2. 

Solum,  iion  solum—sed  etiam  (verum 
etiam),  554,  L,  5. 

Solus,  decl.,  151 ;  for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1,  2.  Gen.  of  solus  w.  pos- 
sess., 398,  3.  Solus  qul  w.  subj., 
503,  II.,  1. 

Solvo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

'  Son,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1,  N. 
2.  Name  of  adopted  son,  649,  3. 

Sonants,  3,  II.,  5, 1:  3,  N.  1,  II.,  1. 

Sons,  defect.,  159,  II. 

-sorius,  o  in,  587,  III.,  4. 

Sors,  abl.,  64,  N.  3. 

Sotadean  verse,  626,  N.  2. 

Source,  abl.  of,  413 ;  415. 

Space,  ace.  of,  379. 

Sparing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Special  constr.  w.  infin.,  539.  Gen. 
in  spec,  constr.,  398. 

Species,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Specification,  ace.  of,  378 ;  abl.,  424. 

Specimen  without  plur.,  130, 1,  4). 

Specus,  decl.,  117, 1,  2) ;  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1 ;  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Speech,  parts  of,  38.  Figures  of 
speech,  634  ff. 

SpeSj  decl.,  122,  2. 

SpHnx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Spirants,  8,  II.,  4,  2. 

Spolio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Spondaic  line,  610,  3. 

Spondee,  597, 1. 

Square  measure,  Eom.,  648,  V. 

Stadium,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Stanza,  606.    Stanzas  of  Horace,  631. 

StatuO,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

STEM  in  decl.,  46.  Stem-characteris- 
tic, stem-ending,  46,  3.  Stem  in 
Decl.  L.  48,  1;  Decl.  II.,  51,  1; 
Decl.  III.,  57, 1 ;  58, 1 :  59,  1 ;  60, 
1 ;  61, 1 ;  62, 1 :  64, 1, 1) ;  66, 1  and 
8 ;  69-98 ;  Decl.  IV.,  116,  1 ;  Decl. 
V.,  120,  1.  Stems  of  verbs,  202, 
notes  1  and  2 ;  203,  N.  2 ;  fonnation 
of,  249  ff.  Stems  of  words,  315  ff. 
Stem-syllables,  quant.,  588  ff. ;  va- 
riation in,  593.  1.  Primitives  w. 
long  stem-syllables,  595. 

SteriUs  w.  gen.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 

Stirpe.  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Stiti,  *  in,  590, 1. 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


8U>  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1.  E  in 
gtetl,  a  in  statum,  590,  1. 

Strigilis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Striving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Strix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  348,  foot- 
note 2. 

Strong  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Struts,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Studeo,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  2. 

titudidsw  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
w.  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Sub  in  compos.,  344,  5;  w.  dat..  386. 
Sub  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435 ;  435, N.  1 ; 
435,  L 

SUBJECT,  356,  1 :  simple,  358 :  com- 
plex, 359 ;  modified,  359,  N.  1.  Subj. 
nom.,  368.  Subj.  indef.,  518,  2. 
Subj.  ace.,  536.  Infin.  as  subj., 
538.  Subject  clauses,  501, 1.  Sub- 
jects compared,  535,  5.  Dat.  w. 
adjs.  signifying  subject,  391 , 1.  Posi- 
ti9n  of  subj.,  560. 

Subjective  gen.,  396,  II. 

SUBJUNCTIVE,  196,  II.  Syntax  of  subj., 
477  ff. ;  tenses.  478  ff. ;  sequence, 
490  ff.  Subj.  in  prin.  clauses,  483 
ff. ;  in  subord.  clauses,  490  ff.  Subj. 
of  desire,  483;  484;  potent.,  485; 
486 ;  of  purpose,  497  ff. :  of  result, 
500  ff. ;  in  condit.,  507  ff. ;  in  con- 
cess.,  615;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 
517 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519  ff. ;  in 
indir.  disc. ,  523  ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses, 
529  ff.  ;  in  indir.  questions;  529,  I. 
Subj.  in  questions  of  surprise,  486, 
II. ,  N.  Subj.  of  desire  for  imperat. , 
487,  4.  -Is  in  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4; 
-fe,  581,  VIII.,  5. 

SuBOBinNATE  CLAUSES,  848,  N.  2 ;  490 
ff.  ;  in  indir.  disc.,  524.  Subord. 
conjs.,  311 ;  555 ;  elements,  857,  1 ; 
position,  672. 

Substantive  pron.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3. 
Substant.  clauses,  532  ff.  ;  540 ;  of 
purpose,  499, 3  •  of  result,  501.  SUD- 
stantives,  see  Aouns. 

Subter  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435. 

Suffixes,  46:  case-suffix,  46.  1.  Suf- 
fixes in  format,  of  words,  318  ff. 
Primary  suffixes,  320. 

Sui,  decl.,  184 ;  u.«e,  448 ;  449 :  placed 
next  quisque,  569,  I.,  2.  /in  sibl. 
581  It,  2. 

Suitableness,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  891, 
I. ;  391.  II.,  1,  2). 

Sum  w.  dat.,  387  ;  two  dats.,  890,  N. 
1,  1);  pred.  gen.,  403;  404;  abl., 
415,  III.,  N.  1 ;  p.  226.  foot-note  1. 

Summits,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 


Supellex,  decl.,  64,  N.  3;  130,  1,  4). 

Super  in  compos,  w.  ace.,  872;  dat., 
386 :  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Super  w.  ace. 
or  abl.,  435 ;  435,  N.  2 ;  435,  I. 

SUPERLATIVE,  160:  irreg.,  163;  want- 
ing, 168 ;  169 ;  formed  by  mdxime, 
170.  Superlat.  w.  part,  gen.,  897, 
3 ;  p.  209,  foot-note  3.  Use  of  su- 
perlat.,  444. 

Superne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Superus,  compar.,  168,  3. 

SUPINE,  200,  III. ;  endings,  248.  Su- 
pine system,  222,  III.  Supine  stem, 
256.  Supine  wanting,  262,  notes  1 
and  2 ;  265 ;  266 ;  267,  3 ;  271, 1  and 
2 ;  272,  1 ;  272,  notes  1  and  2 ;  27(5 ; 
278 ;  281 ;  282 ;  284 ;  284,  N.  2.  Su- 
pine in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV.  Use 
of  sup.,  545  ff.  ;  sup.  in  um,  545; 
546 ;  w.  e6,  546,  2 ;  w.  iri,  546,  3 ; 
sup.  in  M.  545  ;  547.  Quant,  of  pen. 
of  dissyllabic  supines,  590. 

Supra  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. 

Supremus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Surds,  3,  II..  5,  2;  3,  N.  1,  II.,  2. 
surio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

Surname  in  names  of  Roman  citizens, 
649,2. 

Sus,  decl.,  66. 

SuuS)  185 ;  448 ;  449 ;  placed  near 
quisque,  569,  I,  2. 

Syllabic  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Syllables,  8;  14;  15,  3;  quant.,  675 
ff.  Final  syl.  of  verse  either  long 
or  short,  605. 

Syllepsis,  636,  II.,  2. 

Symbols,  num.,  180. 

Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

Synaloepha,  synapheia,  608,  1.,  N.  5. 

Syncopated  pron.,  186,  8. 

Syncope,  608,  VII. ;  685,  2. 

Synecdoche,  637,  IV. 

Synesis,  636,  IV.,  4;  863,  4;  438,  6; 
"445,  5;  449,8:  461. 

Synizesis,  608,  III.,  N.  3. 

Synopsis  of  Decl.  III.,  69-98.  Syn.  of 
con].,  223-230. 

SYNTAX,  345  ff. ;  sentences,  345  ff. ; 
nouns,  862  ff. ;  ad]8.,  438  ff. ;  proiis.. 
445  ff. ;  verbs,  460  ff. ;  particles,  f>.r>l 
ff.  Eules  of  syntax,  5fj«.  Arrung. 
of  words  and  clauses,  559  fl'.  Figu  ren 
of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  686. 

Systole,  608,  VI. 


T,  sound,  7;  13,  II.  T  changed  to 
</,  83,  2 ;  assimilated  to  i<  or  s,  84, 
1  ;  dropped  before  «,  86,  2-.  when 


422 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


final.  36,  5,  2).  Stems  in  t,  58. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  t,  111.  T 
changed  to  s  in  supine,  256,  1. 
Quant,  of  final  syllables  in  t,  579, 
2 ;  580,  II. ;  580,  III.,  N.  2,  1). 

-ta,  -ta,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -ta, 
325. 

Taedet,  constr..  409,  III. ;  410.  IV. 

Taking  away,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 

Talis,  186,  4;  correlat.,  191. 

Talpa,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Tarn,  p.  75,  foot-note  1;  304,  I.,  4; 
305,  V. ;  meaning  and  use,  551,  N. 
2.  Tarn — guam,  555,  II.,  1. 

Tamen,,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  compds., 
554,  III.,  3. 

Tametsi,  311,  4 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II. 

Tandem  in  questions,  351,  4. 

Tanquam,  311,  2.  Tanquam,  tan- 
quam  si,  in  condit. ,  513,  II. 

Tantlsper,  304,  V.,  N.  2. 

Tantopere,  meaning  and  use,  551,  N.  2. 

Tantum  abest  ut,  502,  3.  Jf&n  tan- 
turn — sed  etiam  (verum  etiam),  554, 

Tantus,  demonstr.,  186,  4;  correlat., 
191 ;  w.  interrog.,  464,  4.  Tanti, 
constr.,  p.  215,  foot-note  2 ;  405. 
Tantum  abest  ut,  502,  3. 

-tar,  suffix,  320, 1. 

-tas,  nouns  in,  325. 

Taste,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

•tat,  suffix,  p.  157  j  foot-note  9. 

Tautology  discriminated  from  pleo- 
nasm, p.  371,  foot-note  1. 

Taxis  for  tetigerls,  240,  4. 

Teaching,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Ted  for  te,  184,  5. 

Tempero,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Templum,  decl.,  51. 

Temporal  conjs.,  311,  1  ;  555,  I. 
Temp,  clauses,  518  ff.  ;  position, 
572,11.,  N. 

Tempus  est  w.  infin.,  533,  N.  3. 

Ttner,  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

TENSES,  197;  prin.  and  histor.,  198. 
Tense-signs,  242;  243.  Tenses  of 
indie.,  466  ff. ;  subj.,  478  ff. ;  im- 
perat..  487  ff.  Seq.  of  tenses,  490 
ff.  Tenses  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 
notes  1  and  2;  in  mdir.  disc.,  525. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537  ;  particip.,  550. 

Tentd,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 

Tenus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  gen., 
398,  5;  w.  abl.,  434;  after  its  case, 
434,  N.  4 ;  569,  II. 

Ter,  e  in,  579,  3. 

-ter,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  p.  155,  foot-note 
1.  Adverbs  in  -ter,  304,  IV.  Nouns 
in  -ter,  326;  decl.,  <iO,  3. 


Terence,  peculiarities  in  versification, 
578,  N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  3  and  4; 
metres,  633.  III. 

Terminational  compar.,  161  ff. 

Terra,  constr.,  425,  2.  Terrae,  locat., 
p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Terrester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Testissum,  constr.,  535,  L,  3. 

Tete  for  te,  184,  4. 

Tetrameter,  603,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  616. 

Tetrapody,  597,  N.  4. 

Tetrastich,  606,  N. 

Thebais^  a  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Thematic  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-now  1  ; 
251 

Thesis,  600. 

Thinking,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1, 
N.  1,  (2);  535,  I.,l. 

Third  decl.,  55  ff . ;  adjs.,  152  ff. ;  -o 
in,  581,  II.,  2.  Third  con].,  209: 
210 ;  227  ;  228 ;  269  ff. 

Threatening,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

-ti,  suffix,  320 ;  p.  157,  foot-notes  7 
and  9. 

-tia,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

Titntr,  decl.,  66,  4. 

-ticius,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-tico,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 
ticus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-ti6,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tills,  adjs.  in,  333. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  304,  I.,  1. 

-tima,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9; 
-tima,  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

TIME,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  2).  Ace. 
of  time,  379  :  abl.,  429  ;  379,  1. 
Time  denoted  by  preps,  w.  ace., 
379, 1 ;  429,  2 ;  w.  abl.,  429, 1.  Time 
since,  430,  N.  3.  Adjs.  of  time,  443, 
N.  2.  Time  denoted  by  particip., 
549, 1.  See  also  Temporal  clauses. 
•  Times  or  morae,  597. 

Timed,  constr.,  385,  1 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 
timo.  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

timus,  a,  um,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot- 
note 9.  Adjs.  in  -timus,  330, 1. 

-tio,  -tion,  -tioni,  suffixes,  p.  158, 
foot-note  1.  Nouns  in  -tid,  326. 

Tisfortui,  184,  5. 

Titles,  superlat.  as,  444, 1,  N. 

-tivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

Tmesis,  636,  V    3. 

'  To,'  how  translated,  384,  3. 

-to,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-to  for  tor  in  imperat.,  240,  5. 

Tqjiitrus.  decl.,  117,  1,  3). 

-tor,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-tor,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 
Nouns  in  -tor,  326  ;  as  adjs.,  441,  a 


IXDJiX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


423 


tona,  -torio,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 4.  6  in  tvria,  587,  III.,  4. 

torium,  -torius,  6  in,  587,  III.,  4. 

Tot,  demon.,  186,  4:  correlat.,  191. 

Totitne,  305,  IV. 

Totus,  demon.,  186, 4. 

Totus,  decl.,  151,1 ;  w.  loc.  abl.,  425, 
2.  Totus  for  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N. 
1,  (2). 

TOWNS,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 
constr.,  428 ;  whither,  380,  II.  ; 
whence,  412,  II. ;  where,  425,  II. 

-tra,  suffix,  320,  1. 

Trddor,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Tram  in  compds.,  344,  5;  w.  ace., 
372;  w.  two  aces.,  376.  Tram  w. 
ace.,  433;  433,  I. 

Transitive  verbs,  193,  I. 

Translation  of  subjunctive,  196,  II. ; 
infin.,  200,  I. 

Trees,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -us.  decl.,  119,  2. 

Tres,  decl.,  175. 

Tribrach,  597,  II. 

Tribud  w.  two  date.,  390,  N.  1,2). 

Tribus,  decl.,  117,  1,  1);  gend.,  118, 

-trie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Tricolor!,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Trihemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Trihemimeris,  597,  N.  4. 

Trimeter,  603,  N.  2. 

Tripodv,  597,  N.  4. 

Tristich,  606,  N. 

Trintior,  trittis,  decl.,  154.  Trlstis 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 

(1). 

Trisyllabic  reduplicated  perfects, 
quant,  of  first  two  syllables,  591. 

-trlx,  nouns  In,  326 ;  as  adjs.,  441,  3. 

-tro,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Trochaic  verse,  603,  N.  1;  618  ff. ; 
stanza,  631,  X. ;  caesura,  p.  356, 
foot-note  4. 

Trochee,  597,  II.;  irrational,  598, 1,1). 

Tropes,  637,  V.;  N. 

-trum,  nouns  in,  326. 

Truths,  gen.,  expressed  by  pros,  in- 
die., 467,  II.:  in  condit.,  608,  5; 
511,  1. 

Tt  changed  to  st,  ss,  or  «,  35,  3. 

Tu,  decl.,  184.     /in  tibl,  581,  I.,  2. 

-tu,  ctfi,  suffixes,  320. 

-tuft,  -tudon,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 3. 

TulA,  u  in,  590,  1. 

Turn,  p.  75,  foot-note  1  ;  304,  1..  4 ; 
305,  IV. ;  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 
Turn — turn,  cum — turn,  554,  I.,  5. 


:  -turn,  nouns  in,  323. 
!   Tumvltus,  decl.,  119,  3. 

Tune,  304,  I.,  4  ;  305,  IV. 

-tuo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tura,  suthx,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 
Nouns  in  -tura,  326. 

-turio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

-turo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Twpis  w.  supine,  547,  N.,  1. 

Turris,  decl..  62. 

-turns,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 

Tus,  defect..  133,  N. 

-tus,  adverbs  in,  304,  IV. ;  nouns  in, 
326  ;  adjs.  in,  328. 

-tus,  nouns  in,  324  ;  325. 

Tmsis,  decl.,  62. 

-tut,  -tuti,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot-note 
3. 

Tuus,  possess.,  185. 

Two  aces.,  373  ;  374.  Two  dats.,  390. 
Two  negatives,  553.  Two  copula- 
tives, 554,  1.,  5. 

U 

U,  u,  sound,  5  ;  10 ;  11.  U  w.  sound 
of  w,  5,  4 ;  10,  4,  5).  U  parasitic, 
p.  4,  loot-note  5 ;  interchanged 
with  v,  29;  dropped,  36,  4.  ('- 
nouns,  116.  Nouns  in  M,  defect., 
134.  Sup.  in  ^i,  545  ;  547.  tf  or  «, 
final,  580, 1. ;  in  increments  of  decl., 
585;  585,  V. ;  con.).,  58fi ;  586,  IV. 
£7 as  consonant,  608,  III.,  N.  2. 
-u.  suffix,  320. 

Uber,  neut.  plur.,  158,  1. 

Ubl,  804,  III.,  2 ;  305, 1.  ;  p.  151,  foot- 
note 1;  311,  1;  w.  part,  gen.,  p. 
209,  foot-note  3:  in  temp,  clauses, 
518;  471,4.  "in  ubl.  581,  I.,  2; 
quant,  of  ult.  in  compds.,  594,  9. 

Umcumque,  ubiubl,  p.  75,  foot-note  8 ; 
805,  N.  1. 

Ubivis,  305,  I. 

ubus  for  -iJbus,  117,  1. 

uceus.  u  in,  587,  III.,  1. 

ucus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

udd,  u  in,  587,  I.,  2. 
-Ogft,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  u  in,  587, 

Ui.  sound,  12,  2. 
-uisfor-M*,  117,  2. 
-ula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 
ulentus.  u  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 
-Oils,  ?>in,  587,  I.,  4. 
UWis,  decl.,  151,  1 ;  use.  457.. 
Ulterior,     iiltimm,     166.       Ultimiu, 

force  of,  440,  N.  2;  442.  N. 
Ultra  w.  ace.,  433;  433,  I. 
ulum.     ulus.   in  nouns,  321 ;    in 


424 


INLEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


adjs.,  332;  333,  5;  compar.,  169,  3. 
U  in  -ulwn,  -ulus,  587,  II.,  3. 

-um  in  gen.  plur.  of  nouns,  57 ;  p. 
36,  foot-notes  3  and  4 ;  p.  38.  foot- 
note 2;  67;  adjs..  158,  2.  Nouns 
in  -us  and  -WTO,  neteroclites.  139 ; 
heterogeneous,  144.  Adverbs  in 
-um,  304,  I.,  3,  1);  num.,  181,  N. 
2;  superlat.,  306,  6.  Supine  in 
-um,  545;  546;  w.  eo,  546,  2;  w. 
in,  546,  8. 

-um  for  drum,,  49,  3 ;  orwwi,  52,  3. 

-una,  M  in,  587,  L,  5. 

Uncia,  646,  1,  N. ;  646,  3, 1)— 4). 

Unclothing,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-uncula,  -unculus,  diminutives 
in.  321,  3. 

Unde,  undeUbet,  305,  III. 

-undus.  -unoi,  for  -endue,  -endl, 
239. 

Unguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Union,  dat.  w.  verbs  denoting,  385,  4, 
3).' 

Unlike,  gen.  w.  adjs.  meaning,  391, 
II.,  4,  ?2). 

Unqitam.  305,  IV. 

-unt,  suflix,  320,  II. 

Unus,  decl.,  151,  1 ;  175;  followed  by 
abl.  w.  prep.,  p.  209,  foot-note  1 ; 
gen.  of,  w.  possess.,  398,  3.  Unus 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.I, 
(2).  Unus  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  1. 

-unus,  u  in,  587.  I.,  5. 

Unusquisque,  decl..  p.  77,  foot-note  1. 

-uo,  suflix,  320,  II.  Denom.  verbs 
in  -MO,  335. 

-UP,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  decl.  of  adjs.  in, 
150,  N. ;  gend.  of  nouns  in,  111; 
114. 

Urbs,  decl.,  64. 

Urging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 
urio.  u  in,  587,  IV.,  2. 

-us,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  adverbs  in,  304, 
I..  3,  1);  nouns  in,  326,  2;  327. 
Us  for  e  in  voc.,  52,  2.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  us.  51 ;  85 ;  116 ;  in  us.  84 ; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  1.  Decl. 
of  names  of  trees  in  us.  119,  2. 
Neuters  in  us,  Decl.  II.,  51,  7. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  us,  us,  Decl.  III., 
Ill;  115.  Nouns  in  us  and  um, 
heteroclites,  139 ;  heterogeneous, 
144;  145.  Compar.  of  adjs.  in  us 
preceded  by  vowel,  169,  2.  Us  or 
us  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2 ;  581,  IX. 

Useful,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391, 
I. ;  ad,  391,  II.,  1,  (2). 

Uspiam,  usquam,  305, 1. 

Usque  w.  preps. ,  433,  N.  2.  Usque  w. 
ace.,  437,  1. 


Usus  w.  abl.,  414,  IV. 

Ut,  utl,  804,  in.,  2 ;  305,  V. ;  311 ;  p. 
151,  foot-note  1.  Ut,  ut  pnmum, 
'  as  soon  as,'  471,  4.  Ut  w.  subj. 
of  desire,  483,  1  j  w.  subj.  in  ques- 
tions, 486,  II.,  N. ;  w.  subj.  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  II. ;  after  verbs  of  tear- 
ing, 498,  III.,  N.  1.  Ut  /ie,  ut  non, 
for  ne,  499,  1.  Ut  omitted,  499,  2; 
502,  1.  Ut  w.  subj.  of  result,  500, 
II.  Ut  si  w.  subj.  in  condit.,  513, 
II.  CTinconcess.,515,  III.  Ut — sic, 
ut — ita,  involving  concess.,  515,  N. 
5.  Ut — ita  w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1. 
Ut  w.  relat.,  517,  3, 1).  Ut  in  temp, 
clauses,  518.  Ut  quisque — ita,  458, 
2.  Quant,  of  ult.  of  uti  in  compds., 
594.  9. 

-ut,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  78. 

Uter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

Uter,  decl.,  151, 1;  correlat.,  191. 

Utercunque,  uterlibet,  uterque,  utervis, 
decl.,  151,  N.  2.  Uterque,  constr., 
397,  N.  2;  meaning  and  use,  459, 
4;  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3.  Ts  in 
utervis,  581,  V1I1.,  3,  N. 

Utl,  see  Ut. 

utim,  «  in,  587,  L,  7. 

Utinam  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1. 

Utor,  constr.,  421,  I.  ;  421,  N.  4;  go- 
rundive,  544,  2,  N.  5. 

Utpote,  811,  7:  w.  relat.,  517,  3,  1). 

Utrinde,  304,  III.,  N. 

Utrum,  310,  2,  N.;  311,  8;  353. 

-utus,  u  in,  587,  I..  7. 

Uu  avoided,  p.  15,  foot-note  1. 

-uus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-ux,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97 ;  -Ax,  97, 
N.  1. 

V 

V  originally  not  distinguished  from 
M,  2,  5.  Sound  of  v,  7.  V  inter- 
changed w.  u,  29  ;  treated  as  guttu- 
ral, 30,  N.  1  ;  changed  to  c,  33,  1, 
N. ;  dropped,  36,  4. 

-va,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Vacuus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Vae,  312,  3 ;  w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3,  8). 

Vah,  interj.,  312,  1. 

Falde  quam  in  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Value,  gen.  of,  404.  Gen.  w.  verbs  of 
valuing,  404. 

Vannus,  gend.,  53,  1,  (2). 

Variable  rad.  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2: 
58, 1,  2) ;  60,  1,  2) ;  61,  1,  2). 

Variation  in  quant,  of  stem-syllublea 
593,  1. 

Varieties  of  verse,  609. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


425 


Vas,  decl.,  136,  2. 

Vas,  a  in,  579,  3;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Votes,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Ve,  insep.  prep. ,  308 ;  e  in,  594,  2. 

Ve,  Del,  310,  2  ;  554,  II.,  2.  Vel — vel, 
554,  II.,  N.  Position  of  »e£  in  po- 
etry, 569,  III.,  N. ;  in  prose,  569, 
III.,  4. 

Velut,  311,  2;  554,  II.,  2.  F«Zw£,  «e- 
£M£  si,  in  condit.,  513,  II. 

Venalis  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Venit  in  mentem  w.  gen.,  406,  N. 

Venter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

F«-  without  plur.,  130,  1,4);  quant 
of  increm.,  585,  III..  3. 

Verb  stems,  format,  of,  249  ff. 

Verbal  endings,  analysis  of,  241  ff. 
Verbal  roots,  314,  I.  Verbal  nouns 
in  u  defect.,  134.  Verbal  nouns  w. 
mfin.,533,  3,  N.  3. 

VERBS,  ETYMOLOGY  OF,  192  ff;  classes, 
193 ;  voice,  mood,  tense,  numb., 
pers.,  194  ff. ;  infin.,ger.,  sup.,  par- 
ticip.,  200;  conj.,  201  ff. ;  prin. 
parts,  202 ;  paradigms,  204  ff. ;  com- 
parat.  view,  213  ff. ;  verbal  inflec- 
tions, 220  ff. ;  systems,  222 ;  synop- 
sis, 223  ff. ;  dep.  verbs,  231  ff. ; 
periphrast.  conj.,  233  ff. ;  peculiari- 
ties in  conj.,  235  ff.  ;  analysis  of 
verbal  endings,  241  ff.  ;  tense-signs, 
242  ff.  ;  mood-signs,  244  ff. ;  pers. 
endings,  247  ff  ;  format,  of  stems, 
249  ff. ;  pres.  stem,  250  ;  251  ;  perf. 
stem,  252  ff. ;  sup.  stem,  256 ;  clas- 
sification, 257  ff.  ;  Conj.  1.,  257  ff. ; 
Conj.  II..  261  ff. :  Conj.  III.,  269  ff. ; 
Conj.  IV.,  284  ff. ;  irreg.  verbs,  289 
ff. ;  'defect.,  297  ff.j  impers.,  298  ff.  ; 
derivation,  335  ff. ;  denom.,  335; 
frequent.,  336 ;  incept.,  337  ;  desid- 
erat.,  338;  dimin.,  389;  compds., 
344. 

VERBS,  SYNTAX  OF,  460  ff. ;  agree- 
ment, 460  ff.  Verb  omitted,  368, 
3;  523,  I.,  N.  Voices,  464;  465. 
Indie,  and  tenses,  466  ff.  Subj.  and 
tenses,  477  ff. ;  subj.  in  prin.  clauses, 
483  ff.  Imperat.  and  tenses,  487  ff. 
Subord.  clauses,  490  ff.  ;  seq.  of 
tenses,  490  ff.  Purpose,  497  ff. ;  re- 
sult, 500  ff. ;  condit.  sentences,  506 
ff. ;  concess.  clauses,  515 ;  causal 
clauses,  516 ;  517 ;  temp,  clauses, 
518  ff.  ;  indir.  disc.,  522  ff.  ;  indir. 
clauses,  528  ff.  Infin.,  532  tf.  Sub- 
btant.  clauses,  540.  Ger.,  541 ;  542. 
Gerundive,  543  ;  544.  Supines,  545 
ff.  Particip.,  548  ff.  Position  of 


modifiers  of  verb,  567.  -0,  o,  in 
verbs,  581,  II.,  2 ;  -a,  581,  HI.,  3. 

Vere,  304,  III,  2. 

Vereor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Vergil,  versification,  630. 

Vero,  p.  146,  foot-note  1 ;  310,  3 ; 
554,  III.,  2  and  4;  position,  569, 

Verse,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Verses,  601 ;  name,  603  :  varieties,  609. 

VERSIFICATION,  596  ff.  Feet,  597. 
Verses,  601 ;  names  of,  603 ;  604. 
Figures  of  pros.,  608.  Varieties  of 
verse,  609. 

Versus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  as  adverb,  433,  N.  2 ;  position, 
569,  II. 

VertO  w.  two  data.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Veru,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

Verum,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  n0n 
sOlum  (non  modo  or  nOn  tantum) — 
Verum  etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Verum, 
verum  tamen, resumptive,  554, 1 V. ,  3. 

Venvmtamen,  554?  III.,  3. 

Verv'ex,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Vescor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4. 

Vesper,  decl.,  51,  4.  Vesper  (for  vex- 
peris),  decl.,  62.  N.  2. 

Vespera  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 

Vespertlnus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foofr-note  5. 

Vestrds,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Vestri,  vestrum,  446,  N.  8. 

Vetd,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1; 
vetor,  534,  1,  N.  1. 

Vetun,  decl.,  158 ;  compar.,  168, 1,  N. ; 
167,  2. 

VwAniae,  locat.,  p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Viclnus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Vicis,  defect.,  133, 1. 

VidL  I  in,  581.  IV.,  3. 

Videlicet,  B04,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Videor,  constr.,  584,  1.  N.  1,  (1). 

Vir,  decl.,  51,  4, 1) ;  *  in,  579,  8. 

I'irgt,  decl.,  60. 

Virt-de,  decl.,  58. 

Virus,  decl.,  51,  7  ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Vis,  decl.,  66;  p.  88,  foot-note  4: 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Vixdum,  555,  I.,  1. 

-VO,  suffix,  320,  II. 

VOCATIVE,  irreg.,  52,  2;  68,  3.  Syn- 
tax, 369.  Voc.  in  exelamat.,  381, 
N.  3,  1).  Position  of  voc.,  569,  VI. 
/in  Greek  voc.  sing.,  581,  I.,  2;  -d 
in,  581,111.,  2;  -es  in,  581,  VI.,  3; 
-ft#  in  plur.,  581,  IX.,  2. 

Voices,  195 ;  464 ;  465. 

Vol&  w.  eth.  dat.,  389,  N.  2 ;  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1;  499,2:  w.  in- 
fin.,  p.  310,  foot-not*  1.  Voltou  w. 


426 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


dat.  of  possess.,  387,  N.  8.  Increm. 
of  void  and  compds.,  586, 1. 

Volncer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Volucris,  p.  36.  foot-note  3. 

-volus,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  compar., 
164. 

Vtti,  constr.,  410,  in.,  N.  2. 

VOWELS.  3,  I.  ;  sounds,  5 ;  9  if . ;  15, 
1.  Classification  of  vowels,  3,  I. 
Phonet.  changes,  20  ff.  Vowels 
lengthened,  fcO ;  shortened,  21  ; 
weakened,  22 ;  contracted,  23 ; 
changed,  24 ;  assimilated,  25  j  dis- 
similatea,  26;  dropped,  27;  inter- 
changed with  consonants,  28 ;  29. 
Variable  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2; 
58,  1,  2);  60,  1,  2);  61,  1,  2). 
Favorite  vowels,  24.  Vowels  de- 
veloped by  liquids  or  nasals,  29,  N. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Themat.  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251.  Vowel-stems,  compar.  of  adjs. 
in,  162,  N.  Final  vowel  elided, 
608,  I.';  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
II.,  N.  3.  Quant,  before  two  con- 
sonants or  a  double  cons.,  651. 

Vulgm,  decl.,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Vuip'ecula,  p_.  159,  foot-note  1. 

-vus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

W 

Want,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  1. 
Watches  of  night,  645, 1. 
Way,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 
Weak  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 


Weakening  of  vowels,  22 ;  diphthongs, 
23,  N. 

Weights,  Roman,  646 ;  648. 

'  Wife,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1, 
N.  2. 

Winds,  gend.  of  names  of,  42, 1.,  2. 

Wishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  II. 

Without,  constr.  w.  verbs  of  being 
without,  414, 1. 

Women,  names  of,  649,  4. 

Words,  formation  of,  313  ff. ;  deriva- 
tion, 321  ff. ;  arrang.,  559  ff. 


X,  sound,  13,  II. ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N. 
2.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  x;  64 ;  65,  3 ; 
91  ff. ;  gend.,  105  ;  108.  X  length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 


Y  only  in  foreign  words.  2,  6 ;  sound, 
5,  2 ;  10  ff.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  y, 
73;  gend.,  111.  Tor  ?7,  final,  580, 
I. ;  in  increments,  585. 

-ys,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  08,  2 ;  86 ; 
gend.,  107.  Ys  final,  580,  III. 

-yx,  -yx,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97,  N.  2. 


Z  only  in  foreign  words,  2,  6  ;  length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 
Zeugma,  636,  fl.,  1. 


TABLE   QF  OLD  AND   NEW  ARTICLES. 


427 


TABLE 

SHOWING   THE  CORRESPONDING  ARTICLES  IN  THE 
TWO  EDITIONS. 


01.  1'. 

1-4  

KIW. 

1-4 

OLD. 

198,  1  

raw. 

.197,  N.  1 
198 

OLD. 

258,  II.,  4. 

NBW. 

29 

5,  6.  ... 

9 

198,  2  

259 

257 

7... 

10 

198,  8  

.197,  N.  2 

260. 

258 

8  

11 

199  .. 

199 

260,  1  and  2. 
261 

.  257,  notes 
1  and  2 
259    1 

9  

12 

200. 

201 

10-12  

13 

201  

202 

18  

...14,  1 

202 

203 

261,1  and  2.. 
262 

.  259,  notes 
1  and  2 

259    2 

14  

14  2 

203 

208,  1 

15  

....5 

204-212  

..204-212 

16  

6 

213  

220 

268 

260 

17  

7 

214  

221 

264 

261 

18  

8 

215  

222 

266 

.262 

19  

15 

216,  217,  I  

228 

266       .... 

262,  N.  1 

20  

16 

217,11.. 

224 

267 

262,  N.  2 

21  
22  
28  
24  

16,1. 
11,  II. 
....16,111. 
17 

218,  I  
218,11  
219,  I  
219,  II  

225 
226 
227 
228 

268 

.     .  .  263 

269,  I  

265 

269,  11  

264 

270,  I 

.  267,  1 

25  

18 

220,  I.., 

229 

270,  II.,  1. 

266 

26  

19 

220,  II  

280 

270,  II.,  2 

267,  2 

27  

20 

221  

2J7 

270,  III 

267,  8 

28  

24 

222  

218 

271. 

.268 

28,  2,2)... 

...25,  1 

223  

219 

272,  I 

269 

29  

21 

224.  

272,  II. 

270 

30  

22 

225  

281 

273,  I.,  1 

271,  1 

81  

27 

226  

232 

273,  I..  2.     . 

.272,  1 

32  

23 

227-280.     .  . 

278,  II.,  1 

.271,  2 

.    .  ..26,  28 

231  

.    .    .238 

273,  II.,  2 

.  .272,  2 

33  

..30 

232       ... 

.284 

278,  III  

272,  3 

34  

.86,  5,  1) 

233  

..284,  N. 

274,  275,  1..  . 

...278,274 

35  

...31,  1 

234.            

235 

275,11  

275 

32,  35 

235 

236 

276  

276 

36 

.36,  2 

236            

237 

276,  1  

...277,  N. 

37-120.   ... 

87-120 

237       

238 

277-279  

...277-279 

120,  3.     .    . 

121 

238       

239 

280  

.272,  N.  1 

120,  4  .... 

...122 

239  

240 

281  

.272,  N.  2 

121  

123 

240,  I     

.213,  214 

282  

280 

122  

..47,  note  1 

240,  II.  and  III 
241-256  
257  
258,  I.,  1...30 
258,  I.,  2... 

..215,216 
..241-256 
...256,  1 
;  86,  3,  1) 
36,  2 

282,  I  

281 

123  
124-189  
190  

'.'.\:^\w 
..     190,  1 

282  II 

282 

283-285       .    . 

...283-285 

286,  I  

286 

191  

.    .190,  2 

286,  II  

287 

191 

258   I  ,  3 

33,  1 

287  

...287,  N. 

192-195 

192-195 

258   I  ,  4 

.34,  1,  N. 

288-303  

...288-303 

196,  I.. 

196 

258,  I.,  5  8 

6,  8,  N.  3 
2....3S,  1 
...34,N. 

304  

.305,  N.  2 

196,  II.  .  . 

200 

258,  II.,  land 
258,  11.  ,3  

305  
306  

806 
807 

197.  

197 

428 


TABLE   OF   OLD  AND  FEW  ARTICLES. 


OLD. 

307  

HKW. 

808 

OLD. 

364,  865... 

NBW. 

865 

OLD.                                         TfSW. 

419,  II  425   1,  N. 

308,  309     

309 

866  

419,  III..  421,  II.  ;   414, 

310-812  

..810-812 

...366,  367 

I.  and  III. 

313,  I  

313 

367,  368... 

368 

419,  IV..  421,  III.  ;  425, 

313,  II  

340 

369-371  

.    ...369-371 

1,  N. 

313,1  

813,  N.  2 

371,  4..     . 

872 

419,  V.           ...414,  IV. 

..314-320 

371,  5     .   . 

.   .371,  IV. 

419,  2    421,  notes  1  and  2 

314,  315  

821 

371,  6 

.464 

419,3       .  .414,  notes  2-^ 

316  

822 

371,  7  . 

.371,  1.,  N. 

419,  4,  1)  421,  N.  4 

317  

323 

372  

419,4,  3j  421,  N.  3 

318  

324 

373,  374 

373  374 

420  367;  411 

319     .... 

325 

374,  4 

.534 

421..  425,  1.  and  II.  ;  412 

320,  321   ... 

..326,  327 

374,  5 

...       375 

422  425,  1  and  2 

322,  323  

328 

374    6 

376 

422,  2  412,  2 

324...     . 

329 

874   7.     . 

.     377 

423  425,  3 

325       ... 

330 

375 

536 

423,  1  412,  3 

326  

331 

376.. 

424  426 

327  

332 

377 

.370,  II. 

—  427,  428 

328  

333 

378 

.     ..379 

425       413-415 

329  

334 

379 

.     .380 

426         429 

330,  331  .  .  . 

335 

380 

378 

427   430 

332,  I  

336 

381 

.381 

428       .  .419,  II.  ;  419,  2 

332,11  

337 

382,  883 

..    .382,  383 

429  424 

332,  III  

338 

384-396 

384-396 

430,  431  431 

332,  IV  

339 

396,  III.     . 

397 

432-440  432-440 

333-337  

.804,  805 

397     .... 

.398 

441,  1  and  2  441 

338,  I.-III.,  1. 

340 

398,  1  

396,  V.,N.  3 

441,  4  440,  N.  4 

338,  2  

844,  5 

398,  2  

...395,  N.  2 

441,  5  395,  N.  2 

338,  3  

344,  6 

398,  3..  396, 

II.,  N.:  396, 

441,  6  440  notes  1-3 

339 

.341 

ill.,  N  2 

442-463       442-463 

339   1 

.343,11 

398   4    396 

III     N.I; 

464              195 

339,  2 

341,  1 

397,  N.  3 

465-465,11  464 

340 

342 

398  5 

384,  4,  N.  2 

465,  1-3  465 

341 

844,  1-4 

399    1-4 

.399 

466-474     466-474 

342  

304,  805 

399    5 

.  400 

—  475 

343  

345 

400 

475  476 

344  

346 

401,  402 

..401,  402 

476  478 

345,  I.. 

...347 

402,  1  and  2 

404.  405 

477  479,  480 

345,  II.. 

...348 

402,  3     

...401,N.  4 

478  481,  482 

345,  in. 

349 

403     

403 

479  496 

346,  I..    .    . 

.    .  .  .850 

404,  1  

.  .  .401,  N.  ? 

480  490,  491 

346,  II.,  1. 

.    ...351 

405  

481,  1  492 

346  II  ,  2 

353 

406-408 

.406-408 

481,11  493 

346,  II    3 

852 

409 

.410,  V. 

481,111  494 

346,  III.  .  .  . 

354 

410-410,  2. 

409 

481,  III.,1  and  2....  496 

346,  IV. 

355 

410,  3-7     . 

410 

481,  IV  495.  II. 

347  

356 

411,  1   ... 

..    ..397,4 

481,  V  495,111. 

348  

.857 

411,2     

398,5 

481,  VI  495,  IV. 

349  

.  .    .357,  1 

412,413.    .. 

...367;  411 

482..  495,  1.,  VI.,  and  VII. 

350 

857,  2 

114  114   2 

413  ;  416 

483,  484  477 

351  

358 

414,  3  

....419,  III. 

485,486  485,486 

352  

859 

414,4.!  

...418;  420 

486,  4  and  6.  .485,  notes 

353 

860 

414,  5  and  6 

415,1. 

486,  5  518,  1 

354  

.861,  1 

414,7..  418; 

419,1.;  419,1 

487,488  483,484 

355 

861    2 

415 

488,  1-5  483,  1-5 

356 

861,  3 

416 

.  .  .  .422 

489  497  ;  500 

357-861. 

417     . 

417 

490  497,  1;  500 

362   363 

362  363 

418 

423 

491       497,  1 

863.  4... 

...364 

419.1... 

...421,1. 

492,493  498,499 

TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


429 


»IT.. 

493,  4  

NKW.     i    OLD.                                            NEW.        OLD. 

.  .  .483,  3,  N.      552,  3  and  4        .533,  II.      607 

K«W. 

574 

494  

500  1  553,  I.-IV  539     608. 

575 

495  

495,  2,  2)  .  . 

501   !  553,  V  533,11.      609. 
..486,  II.,  N.      554  .540     610 

575,  foot-note  1 
576   I 

496  

502     555                          540  I       611 

576,11. 
2                         578 

49V  

497,  2     556,  I.  .  .538,  1  ;  540,  N.      611, 

498  

504     556,  1.,  land  2.   501,  ..,2     612. 

577 

499  

497,2     556,  II.  and  III..  501,1.,  1      613. 

579 

500  

.  .    ..497;  500     557                         .540   I       614 

580.  I. 
581,  III 

500,  3  

503,  N.  8     558,  !.,!..    .       .535,1.      615. 

501  

503     558,  1..  2  498,1.      616 

581   IV 

505     558,  II.,  1  533,  1.,  1      617. 

580   I 

502  

506     558,  II.,  2.       498,  I.,  N.      618 

581    I 

503,  1.  and 
503,  III.  .  . 

II  513     558,111  498.11.      619. 

.580   I 

507     558,  IV  501,  II.,  1      620 

581  II 

504  

509,510     558,  V  535,111.      621 

580,  II 

505  
506  

513,1.      558,  VI  498,1.      622. 
513,  II.     558,  VI.,  2  and  3  .535,  II      623 

580,111. 
581   V 

507-510... 

507-510     559  -.541      624 

581,  VI 

510,  2  

511,2     560,561         ...          542     625 

581,  VII 

511-611,  2 
511,  3  

511     562.    .                  543,544     626. 

581,  VIII. 

512     568            .542.  1.  ;  544,  1      627 

581,  IX. 

512  

511     564.   ..   .542,  II.  ;  544,  2     628 

..580,  III.;  576,  I. 
582 

513  

507,2     565.  542,  III.  ;  544,  notes     629 

514  

514                                   2  and  5     630 

583 

515,  510.  . 

515     566     ...542,  IV.  ;  544,  2     631 

584 

517,  I.. 

517     567,568  545     632. 

585 

517,  II.  ... 

516     569     546     638. 

585,  I. 

518,1  
518,  II  

517;  515,111.  l  570        547     634. 

585,  11. 

521     571-574.  .             .       .550     635  . 

.  .  .585,  III. 

519  

517  !  575       648     636  . 

585,1V. 

520  

616     576-578     .                ..549     637. 

585,  V. 

521,  I  

519,2     679  ..549,5     688. 

586 

521,  II. 

520  1  580        .           .649,  N.  2     639. 

586 

522     .... 

.     .         .519     581  549,  N.  1      640. 

586,1. 

523 

.520     582,  688         ..       .    .551      641. 

586,  II. 

524 

.528,  2,  N.     584          .                    .552     G42. 

586 

525,  526... 
527  

529     585                553     643. 

586,  III. 

528  ;  529,  II.      586  558,  N.      644. 
622     587                         .    ..554     645. 

586,  IV. 
567,  I. 

528 

529,  530.. 
531   532 

523  !  588                              .555     646. 

..'....587,11. 

524  525     589                              .556     647. 

587,  III. 

532,  2  and 
532,  4 

5                 527     590                       ..    ..557      648. 

687,1V. 

525   2     591                             ..558     —  .. 

588,  58!> 

533 

526  '  530     592                               559     649 

595 

534-537.  .  . 
588    1 

.487'  489     698       .           560     650. 

592 

488     694                       .       .561      651. 

590 

538,  2 

489   1)  '  595         562     652. 

591 

.531      596               563      653. 

593 

539. 

597              564     654. 

594 

540-544.  .  . 
545-547 

537     598                               565     655 

696 

586     599                                566     65fi 

E97 

548  

532  !  600  567      657, 

658  598 
599 

549-549,  8 
549,4..    .. 

538     601                                568     659 

534,  1      602              569      66C  . 

600 

550 

533  535      603                                .571      661  . 

601 

551  
552,  1.... 
552,  2... 

535      604                                 572      662 

602 

533,  I.   !  605  573      663. 
...534     60«.  ..                      ...570      664. 

603 
<504 

430 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


OLD. 

665. 

NEW. 

.  ..605 

OLD. 

681  

raw. 
619 

OLD. 

70S  

K1W. 

685 

666  

606 

682  

621 

704  

686 

667  

601,  N.  8 

688  

622 

705  

637 

668  

607,  N. 

684  

623 

688,  639 

669  

608 

685  

624 

706... 

640 

670  

609 

686  

625 

707  

641 

671  

610 

687  

626 

708  

642 

672 

610,  1-3 

688,  689 

628,  II.-V. 

709  . 

.643 

678  

611 

690...  628, 

VI.  and  VII. 

710  

644 

674  

...611,  4  and  5 

691  

627,  628 

711  

645 

612 

691,  V  

,629,  I. 

712  

646 

676  

613 

692  

628,  IX. 

713  

647 

676  

614 

693  

....631,  XV. 

714  

648,  I. 

676,  2 

615 

694  

...631,  XIV. 

715  

648,  II. 

677,  I  . 

616 

695  

629,11. 

716  

648,111. 

677,  II. 

617 

696-699.  .  . 

630 

717  

648,1V. 

677,  III 

628,1. 

700  

631 

718  

648,  V. 

678 

633,  II.,  note  8 

701  

632 

719  

649,  1 

679   .  . 

618 

633 

720  

650 

680... 

...620 

702... 

...634 

...651 

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HARKNESS      AND      FORBES'S 

Caesar's    Commentaries 
on   the   Gallic  War 

With  Introduction,  Notes,  and  Vocabulary.     By  ALBERT  HARKNESS,  Ph.  D.,  LL.D  , 
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able for  its  simplicity,  yet  it  contains  everything  which  is  needed  for  studying  the 
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1.  This  edition   is  furnished  with  an  Introduction  containing  an  outline 
of  the  life  of  Caesar,  a  description  in  brief  of  the  scenes  of  his  military  operations 
in  Gaul,   Germany,   and    Britain,    and  a  short    treatise   on    the    military  system 
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duced in  their  natural  colors.      Besides  these,  there  are  many  other  illustrations, 
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